Anatomy of superior olivary complex and lateral lemniscus in Etruscan shrew.

Based on the auditory periphery and the small head size, Etruscan shrews (Suncus etruscus) approximate ancestral mammalian conditions. The auditory brainstem in this insectivore has not been investigated. Using labelling techniques, we assessed the structures of their superior olivary complex (SOC) and the nuclei of the lateral lemniscus (NLL). There, we identified the position of the major nuclei, their input pattern, transmitter content, expression of calcium binding proteins (CaBPs) and two voltage-gated ion channels. The most prominent SOC structures were the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB), the lateral nucleus of the trapezoid body (LNTB), the lateral superior olive (LSO) and the superior paraolivary nucleus (SPN). In the NLL, the ventral (VNLL), a specific ventrolateral VNLL (VNLLvl) cell population, the intermediate (INLL) and dorsal (DNLL) nucleus, as well as the inferior colliculus's central aspect were discerned. INLL and VNLL were clearly separated by the differential distribution of various marker proteins. Most labelled proteins showed expression patterns comparable to rodents. However, SPN neurons were glycinergic and not GABAergic and the overall CaBPs expression was low. Next to the characterisation of the Etruscan shrew's auditory brainstem, our work identifies conserved nuclei and indicates variable structures in a species that approximates ancestral conditions.

Surface electrical stimulation of the auditory cortex preserves efferent medial olivocochlear neurons and reduces cochlear traits of age-related hearing loss.

The auditory cortex is the source of descending connections providing contextual feedback for auditory signal processing at almost all levels of the lemniscal auditory pathway. Such feedback is essential for cognitive processing. It is likely that corticofugal pathways are degraded with aging, becoming important players in age-related hearing loss and, by extension, in cognitive decline. We are testing the hypothesis that surface, epidural stimulation of the auditory cortex during aging may regulate the activity of corticofugal pathways, resulting in modulation of central and peripheral traits of auditory aging. Increased auditory thresholds during ongoing age-related hearing loss in the rat are attenuated after two weeks of epidural stimulation with direct current applied to the surface of the auditory cortex for two weeks in alternate days (Fernández del Campo et al., 2024). Here we report that the same cortical electrical stimulation protocol induces structural and cytochemical changes in the aging cochlea and auditory brainstem, which may underlie recovery of age-degraded auditory sensitivity. Specifically, we found that in 18 month-old rats after two weeks of cortical electrical stimulation there is, relative to age-matched non-stimulated rats: a) a larger number of choline acetyltransferase immunoreactive neuronal cell body profiles in the ventral nucleus of the trapezoid body, originating the medial olivocochlear system.; b) a reduction of age-related dystrophic changes in the stria vascularis; c) diminished immunoreactivity for the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNFα in the stria vascularis and spiral ligament. d) diminished immunoreactivity for Iba1 and changes in the morphology of Iba1 immunoreactive cells in the lateral wall, suggesting reduced activation of macrophage/microglia; d) Increased immunoreactivity levels for calretinin in spiral ganglion neurons, suggesting excitability modulation by corticofugal stimulation. Altogether, these findings support that non-invasive neuromodulation of the auditory cortex during aging preserves the cochlear efferent system and ameliorates cochlear aging traits, including stria vascularis dystrophy, dysregulated inflammation and altered excitability in primary auditory neurons.

The Guillain-Mollaret triangle: a key player in motor coordination and control with implications for neurological disorders.

The dentato-rubro-olivary pathway, also known as the Guillain-Mollaret triangle (GMT) or myoclonic triangle, consists of the dentate nucleus, the red nucleus, and the inferior olivary nucleus (ION). GMT is important for motor coordination and control, and abnormalities in this network can lead to various neurological disorders. The present study followed a systematic approach in conducting a review on GMT studies. The inclusion criteria were limited to human subjects with primary objectives of characterizing and evaluating GMT syndromes, and the methodology used was not a determining factor for eligibility. The search strategy used MeSH terms and keywords relevant to the study's objective in various databases until August 2022. A total of 76 studies were included in the review after assessing 527 articles for eligibility based on the final inclusion criteria. Most of the studies evaluated the GMT in human subjects, with the majority utilizing magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), or combination of them. The review found that Hypertrophic olivary degeneration (HOD), a common consequence of GMT damage, has diverse underlying causes, including stroke, brainstem cavernous malformations, and structural impairments. Palatal tremor, ocular myoclonus, ataxia, nystagmus, and vertigo were frequently reported symptoms associated with HOD. This systematic review provides comprehensive insights into the association between GMT and various neurological syndromes, shedding light on the diagnostic, etiological, and prognostic aspects of GMT dysfunction. Understanding the role of the GMT and its implications in movement disorders could pave the way for improved treatment options and better management of neurological conditions related to this critical brainstem pathway.

Uncoupling axon guidance and neuronal migration in Robo3-deficient inferior olivary neurons.

Inferior olivary (IO) neurons are born in the dorsal hindbrain and migrate tangentially toward the ventral midline. During their dorsoventral migration, IO neurons extend long leading processes that cross the midline, transform into axons, and project into the contralateral cerebellum. In absence of the axon guidance receptor Robo3, IO axons fail to cross the midline and project to the ipsilateral cerebellum. Remarkably, the IO cell bodies still reach the midline where they form a nucleus of abnormal cytoarchitecture. The mechanisms underlying the migration of Robo3-deficient IO neurons are unknown. Here, we used three-dimensional imaging and transgenic mice to label subsets of IO neurons and study their migratory behavior in Robo3 knockout. We show that IO migration is delayed in absence of Robo3. Strikingly, Robo3-deficient IO neurons progress toward the midline in a direction opposite to their axons. This occurs through a change of polarity and the generation of a second leading process at the rear of the cell. These results suggest that Robo3 receptor controls the establishment of neuronal polarity and the coupling of axonogenesis and cell body migration in IO neurons.

Structural arrangement of auditory brainstem nuclei in the bats Phyllostomus discolor and Carollia perspicillata.

The structure of the mammalian auditory brainstem is evolutionarily highly plastic, and distinct nuclei arrange in a species-dependent manner. Such anatomical variability is present in the superior olivary complex (SOC) and the nuclei of the lateral lemniscus (LL). Due to the structure-function relationship in the auditory brainstem, the identification of individual nuclei supports the understanding of sound processing. Here, we comparatively describe the nucleus arrangement and the expression of functional markers in the auditory brainstem of the two bat species Phyllostomus discolor and Carollia perspicillata. Using immunofluorescent labeling, we describe the arrangement and identity of the SOC and LL nuclei based on the expression of synaptic markers (vesicular glutamate transporter 1 and glycine transporter 2), calcium-binding proteins, as well as the voltage-gated ion channel subunits Kv1.1 and HCN1. The distribution of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic labeling appears similar between both species and matches with that of other mammals. The detection of calcium-binding proteins indicates species-dependent differences and deviations from other mammals. Kv1.1 and HCN1 show largely the same expression pattern in both species, which diverges from other mammals, indicating functional adaptations in the cellular physiology of bat neurons.

Cerebellar and vestibular nuclear synapses in the inferior olive have distinct release kinetics and neurotransmitters.

The inferior olive (IO) is composed of electrically-coupled neurons that make climbing fiber synapses onto Purkinje cells. Neurons in different IO subnuclei are inhibited by synapses with wide ranging release kinetics. Inhibition can be exclusively synchronous, asynchronous, or a mixture of both. Whether the same boutons, neurons or sources provide these kinetically distinct types of inhibition was not known. We find that in mice the deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN) and vestibular nuclei (VN) are two major sources of inhibition to the IO that are specialized to provide inhibitory input with distinct kinetics. DCN to IO synapses lack fast synaptotagmin isoforms, release neurotransmitter asynchronously, and are exclusively GABAergic. VN to IO synapses contain fast synaptotagmin isoforms, release neurotransmitter synchronously, and are mediated by combined GABAergic and glycinergic transmission. These findings indicate that VN and DCN inhibitory inputs to the IO are suited to control different aspects of IO activity.

Long-term potentiation of glycinergic synapses by semi-natural stimulation patterns during tonotopic map refinement.

Before the onset of hearing, cochlea-generated patterns of spontaneous spike activity drive the maturation of central auditory circuits. In the glycinergic sound localization pathway from the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) to the lateral superior olive (LSO) this spontaneous activity guides the strengthening and silencing of synapses which underlies tonotopic map refinement. However, the mechanisms by which patterned activity regulates synaptic refinement in the MNTB-LSO pathway are still poorly understood. To address this question, we recorded from LSO neurons in slices from prehearing mice while stimulating MNTB afferents with stimulation patterns that mimicked those present in vivo. We found that these semi-natural stimulation patterns reliably elicited a novel form of long-term potentiation (LTP) of MNTB-LSO synapses. Stimulation patterns that lacked the characteristic high-frequency (200 Hz) component of prehearing spike activity failed to elicit potentiation. LTP was calcium dependent, required the activation of both g-protein coupled GABAB and metabotropic glutamate receptors and involved an increase in postsynaptic glycine receptor-mediated currents. Our results provide a possible mechanism linking spontaneous spike bursts to tonotopic map refinement and further highlight the importance of the co-release of GABA and glutamate from immature glycinergic MNTB terminals.

Topographic map refinement and synaptic strengthening of a sound localization circuit require spontaneous peripheral activity.

KEY POINTS: Loss of the calcium sensor otoferlin disrupts neurotransmission from inner hair cells. Central auditory nuclei are functionally denervated in otoferlin knockout mice (Otof KOs) via gene ablation confined to the periphery. We employed juvenile and young adult Otof KO mice (postnatal days (P)10-12 and P27-49) as a model for lacking spontaneous activity and deafness, respectively. We studied the impact of peripheral activity on synaptic refinement in the sound localization circuit from the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) to the lateral superior olive (LSO). MNTB in vivo recordings demonstrated drastically reduced spontaneous spiking and deafness in Otof KOs. Juvenile KOs showed impaired synapse elimination and strengthening, manifested by broader MNTB-LSO inputs, imprecise MNTB-LSO topography and weaker MNTB-LSO fibres. The impairments persisted into young adulthood. Further functional refinement after hearing onset was undetected in young adult wild-types. Collectively, activity deprivation confined to peripheral protein loss impairs functional MNTB-LSO refinement during a critical prehearing period. ABSTRACT: Circuit refinement is critical for the developing sound localization pathways in the auditory brainstem. In prehearing mice (hearing onset around postnatal day (P)12), spontaneous activity propagates from the periphery to central auditory nuclei. At the glycinergic projection from the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) to the lateral superior olive (LSO) of neonatal mice, super-numerous MNTB fibres innervate a given LSO neuron. Between P4 and P9, MNTB fibres are functionally eliminated, whereas the remaining fibres are strengthened. Little is known about MNTB-LSO circuit refinement after P20. Moreover, MNTB-LSO refinement upon activity deprivation confined to the periphery is largely unexplored. This leaves a considerable knowledge gap, as deprivation often occurs in patients with congenital deafness, e.g. upon mutations in the otoferlin gene (OTOF). Here, we analysed juvenile (P10-12) and young adult (P27-49) otoferlin knockout (Otof KO) mice with respect to MNTB-LSO refinement. MNTB in vivo recordings revealed drastically reduced spontaneous activity and deafness in knockouts (KOs), confirming deprivation. As RNA sequencing revealed Otof absence in the MNTB and LSO of wild-types, Otof loss in KOs is specific to the periphery. Functional denervation impaired MNTB-LSO synapse elimination and strengthening, which was assessed by glutamate uncaging and electrical stimulation. Impaired elimination led to imprecise MNTB-LSO topography. Impaired strengthening was associated with lower quantal content per MNTB fibre. In young adult KOs, the MNTB-LSO circuit remained unrefined. Further functional refinement after P12 appeared absent in wild-types. Collectively, we provide novel insights into functional MNTB-LSO circuit maturation governed by a cochlea-specific protein. The central malfunctions in Otof KOs may have implications for patients with sensorineuronal hearing loss.

Strengthening of the Efferent Olivocochlear System Leads to Synaptic Dysfunction and Tonotopy Disruption of a Central Auditory Nucleus.

The auditory system in many mammals is immature at birth but precisely organized in adults. Spontaneous activity in the inner ear plays a critical role in guiding this maturation process. This is shaped by an efferent pathway that descends from the brainstem and makes transient direct synaptic contacts with inner hair cells. In this work, we used an α9 cholinergic nicotinic receptor knock-in mouse model (of either sex) with enhanced medial efferent activity (Chrna9L9'T, L9'T) to further understand the role of the olivocochlear system in the correct establishment of auditory circuits. Wave III of auditory brainstem responses (which represents synchronized activity of synapses within the superior olivary complex) was smaller in L9'T mice, suggesting a central dysfunction. The mechanism underlying this functional alteration was analyzed in brain slices containing the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB), where neurons are topographically organized along a mediolateral (ML) axis. The topographic organization of MNTB physiological properties observed in wildtype (WT) was abolished in L9'T mice. Additionally, electrophysiological recordings in slices indicated MNTB synaptic alterations. In vivo multielectrode recordings showed that the overall level of MNTB activity was reduced in the L9'T The present results indicate that the transient cochlear efferent innervation to inner hair cells during the critical period before the onset of hearing is involved in the refinement of topographic maps as well as in setting the properties of synaptic transmission at a central auditory nucleus.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Cochlear inner hair cells of altricial mammals display spontaneous electrical activity before hearing onset. The pattern and firing rate of these cells are crucial for the correct maturation of the central auditory pathway. A descending efferent innervation from the CNS contacts the hair cells during this developmental window. The present work shows that genetic enhancement of efferent function disrupts the orderly topographic distribution of biophysical and synaptic properties in the auditory brainstem and causes severe synaptic dysfunction. This work adds to the notion that the transient efferent innervation to the cochlea is necessary for the correct establishment of the central auditory circuitry.

Segregated expressions of autism risk genes Cdh11 and Cdh9 in autism-relevant regions of developing cerebellum.

Results of recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and whole genome sequencing (WGS) highlighted type II cadherins as risk genes for autism spectrum disorders (ASD). To determine whether these cadherins may be linked to the morphogenesis of ASD-relevant brain regions, in situ hybridization (ISH) experiments were carried out to examine the mRNA expression profiles of two ASD-associated cadherins, Cdh9 and Cdh11, in the developing cerebellum. During the first postnatal week, both Cdh9 and Cdh11 were expressed at high levels in segregated sub-populations of Purkinje cells in the cerebellum, and the expression of both genes was declined as development proceeded. Developmental expression of Cdh11 was largely confined to dorsal lobules (lobules VI/VII) of the vermis as well as the lateral hemisphere area equivalent to the Crus I and Crus II areas in human brains, areas known to mediate high order cognitive functions in adults. Moreover, in lobules VI/VII of the vermis, Cdh9 and Cdh11 were expressed in a complementary pattern with the Cdh11-expressing areas flanked by Cdh9-expressing areas. Interestingly, the high level of Cdh11 expression in the central domain of lobules VI/VII was correlated with a low level of expression of the Purkinje cell marker calbindin, coinciding with a delayed maturation of Purkinje cells in the same area. These findings suggest that these two ASD-associated cadherins may exert distinct but coordinated functions to regulate the wiring of ASD-relevant circuits in the cerebellum.

Conversion of Graded Presynaptic Climbing Fiber Activity into Graded Postsynaptic Ca2+ Signals by Purkinje Cell Dendrites.

The brain must make sense of external stimuli to generate relevant behavior. We used a combination of in vivo approaches to investigate how the cerebellum processes sensory-related information. We found that the inferior olive encodes contexts of sensory-associated external cues in a graded manner, apparent in the presynaptic activity of their axonal projections (climbing fibers) in the cerebellar cortex. Individual climbing fibers were broadly responsive to different sensory modalities but relayed sensory-related information to the cortex in a lobule-dependent manner. Purkinje cell dendrites faithfully transformed this climbing fiber activity into dendrite-wide Ca2+ signals without a direct contribution from the mossy fiber pathway. These results demonstrate that the size of climbing-fiber-evoked Ca2+ signals in Purkinje cell dendrites is largely determined by the firing level of climbing fibers. This coding scheme emphasizes the overwhelming role of the inferior olive in generating salient signals useful for instructing plasticity and learning.

Hypertrophic olivary degeneration: A comprehensive review focusing on etiology.

Hypertrophic olivary degeneration (HOD) is a rare form of trans-synaptic degeneration characterized by hypertrophy of the inferior olivary nucleus situated in the olivary body, part of the medulla oblongata, representing a major source of input to the cerebellum. HOD typically results from focal lesions interrupting connections from the inferior olive within the dentato-rubro-olivary pathway (DROP), a region also known as the Guillain-Mollaret triangle (GMT) (red nucleus, inferior olivary nucleus, and contralateral dentate nucleus). Clinically, HOD presents classically as palatal tremor and can include dentatorubral tremor and/or ocular myoclonus. Oppenheim first described the enlargement of the ION in his post-mortem study. Since then, a limited number of cases have been reported in the literatures. Thus, we intended to describe the definition, pathophysiology, clinical features, radiological features, diagnosis, and current management of HOD. We provide a comprehensive review of HOD focusing on etiology. The present review may lead to a better understanding of HOD clinical characteristic with the goal of contributing to existing knowledge of this rare disease.

Neuronal Regulation of Fast Synaptotagmin Isoforms Controls the Relative Contributions of Synchronous and Asynchronous Release.

Neurotransmitter release can be synchronous and occur within milliseconds of action potential invasion, or asynchronous and persist for tens of milliseconds. The molecular determinants of release kinetics remain poorly understood. It has been hypothesized that asynchronous release dominates when fast Synaptotagmin isoforms are far from calcium channels or when specialized sensors, such as Synaptotagmin 7, are abundant. Here we test these hypotheses for GABAergic projections onto neurons of the inferior olive, where release in different subnuclei ranges from synchronous to asynchronous. Surprisingly, neither of the leading hypotheses accounts for release kinetics. Instead, we find that rapid Synaptotagmin isoforms are abundant in subnuclei with synchronous release but absent where release is asynchronous. Viral expression of Synaptotagmin 1 transforms asynchronous synapses into synchronous ones. Thus, the nervous system controls levels of fast Synaptotagmin isoforms to regulate release kinetics and thereby controls the ability of synapses to encode spike rates or precise timing.

Sox14 Is Required for a Specific Subset of Cerebello-Olivary Projections.

We identify Sox14 as an exclusive marker of inhibitory projection neurons in the lateral and interposed, but not the medial, cerebellar nuclei. Sox14+ neurons make up ∼80% of Gad1+ neurons in these nuclei and are indistinguishable by soma size from other inhibitory neurons. All Sox14+ neurons of the lateral and interposed cerebellar nuclei are generated at approximately E10/10.5 and extend long-range, predominantly contralateral projections to the inferior olive. A small Sox14+ population in the adjacent vestibular nucleus "Y" sends an ipsilateral projection to the oculomotor nucleus. Cerebellar Sox14+ and glutamatergic projection neurons assemble in non-overlapping populations at the nuclear transition zone, and their integration into a coherent nucleus depends on Sox14 function. Targeted ablation of Sox14+ cells by conditional viral expression of diphtheria toxin leads to significantly impaired motor learning. Contrary to expectations, associative learning is unaffected by unilateral Sox14+ neuron elimination in the interposed and lateral nuclei.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The cerebellar nuclei are central to cerebellar function, yet how they modulate and process cerebellar inputs and outputs is still primarily unknown. Our study gives a direct insight into how nucleo-olivary projection neurons are generated, their projections, and their function in an intact behaving mouse. These neurons play a critical conceptual role in all models of cerebellar function, and this study represents the first specific analysis of their molecular identity and function and offers a powerful model for future investigation of cerebellar function in motor control and learning.

Cerebellar modules in the olivo-cortico-nuclear loop demarcated by pcdh10 expression in the adult mouse.

Topographic connection between corresponding compartments of the cerebellar cortex, cerebellar nuclei, and inferior olive form parallel modules, which are essential for the cerebellar function. Compared to the striped cortical compartmentalization which are labeled by molecular markers, such as aldolase C (Aldoc) or zebrin II, the presumed corresponding organization of the cerebellar nuclei and inferior olivary nucleus has not been much clarified. We focused on the expression pattern of pcdh10 gene coding cell adhesion molecule protocadherin 10 (Pcdh10) in adult mice. In the cortex, pcdh10 was strongly expressed in (a) Aldoc-positive vermal stripes a+//2+ in lobules VI-VII, (b) paravermal narrow stripes c+, d+, 4b+, 5a+ in crus I and neighboring lobules, and (c) paravermal stripes 4+//5+ across all lobules from lobule III to paraflocculus. In the cerebellar nuclei, pcdh10 was expressed strongly in the caudal part of the medial nucleus and the lateral part of the posterior interposed nucleus which project less to the medulla or to the red nucleus than to other metencephalic, mesencephalic, and diencephalic areas. In the inferior olive, pcdh10 was expressed strongly in the rostral and medioventrocaudal parts of the medial accessory olive which has connection with the mesencephalic areas rather than the spinal cord. Olivocerebellar and corticonuclear axonal labeling confirmed that the three cortical pcdh10-positive areas were topographically connected to the nuclear and olivary pcdh10-positive areas, demonstrating their coincidence with modular structures in the olivo-cortico-nuclear loop. We speculate that some of these modules are functionally involved in various nonsomatosensorimotor tasks via their afferent and efferent connections.

Divergent projection patterns of M1 ipRGC subtypes.

In addition to its well-known role in pattern vision, light influences a wide range of non-image forming, subconscious visual behaviors including circadian photoentrainment, sleep, mood, learning, and the pupillary light reflex. Each of these behaviors is thought to require input from the M1 subtype of melanopsin-expressing, intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell (ipRGC). Recent work has demonstrated that the M1 subtype of ipRGC can be further subdivided based on expression of the transcription factor Brn3b. Brn3b-positive M1 ipRGCs project to the olivary pretectal nucleus and are necessary for the pupillary light reflex, while Brn3b-negative M1 ipRGCs project to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and are sufficient for circadian photoentrainment. However, beyond the circadian and pupil systems, little is known about the projection patterns of M1 ipRGC subtypes. Here we show that Brn3b-positive M1 ipRGCs comprise the majority of sparse M1 ipRGC inputs to the thalamus, midbrain, and hypothalamus. Our data demonstrate that very few brain targets receive convergent input from both M1 ipRGC subpopulations, suggesting that each subpopulation drives a specific subset of light-driven behaviors.

LC3 Immunostaining in the Inferior Olivary Nuclei of Cats With Niemann-Pick Disease Type C1 Is Associated With Patterned Purkinje Cell Loss.

The feline model of Niemann-Pick disease, type C1 (NPC1) recapitulates the clinical, neuropathological, and biochemical abnormalities present in children with NPC1. The hallmarks of disease are the lysosomal storage of unesterified cholesterol and multiple sphingolipids in neurons, and the spatial and temporal distribution of Purkinje cell death. In feline NPC1 brain, microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) accumulations, indicating autophagosomes, were found within axons and presynaptic terminals. High densities of accumulated LC3 were seen in subdivisions of the inferior olive, which project to cerebellar regions that show the most Purkinje cell loss, suggesting that autophagic abnormalities in specific climbing fibers may contribute to the spatial pattern of Purkinje cell loss seen. Biweekly intrathecal administration of 2-hydroxypropyl-beta cyclodextrin (HPßCD) ameliorated neurological dysfunction, reduced cholesterol and sphingolipid accumulation, and increased lifespan in NPC1 cats. LC3 pathology was reduced in treated animals suggesting that HPßCD administration also ameliorates autophagic abnormalities. This study is the first to (i) identify specific brain regions exhibiting autophagic abnormalities in any species with NPC1, (ii) provide evidence of differential vulnerability among discrete brain nuclei and pathways, and (iii) show the amelioration of these abnormalities in NPC1 cats treated with HPßCD.

An auditory brainstem nucleus as a model system for neuronal metabolic demands.

The correlation between neuronal activity and metabolism is essential for coding, plasticity, neurological disorders and the interpretation of functional neuroimaging data. Most likely, metabolic requirements depend upon neuron type, and macroscopic energy demands vary with brain region. However, specific needs of individual neuron types are enigmatic. Therefore, we monitored metabolic activity in the lateral superior olive (LSO), an auditory brainstem nucleus containing only one neuron type. LSO neurons exhibit extreme but well-described biophysics with firing rates of several hundred hertz and low input resistances of a few megaohms. We recorded changes in NADH and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) autofluorescence and O2 concentration in acute brainstem slices of Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) following electrical stimulation. The LSO shows the typical biphasic NADH/FAD response up to a physiologically relevant frequency of 400 Hz. In the same animal, we compared the LSO with the hippocampal CA1 region and the cerebral cortex. The rate of NADH/FADH2 consumption and regeneration was slowest in LSO. However, frequency dependence was only similar during the consumption phase but varied during regeneration within the three brain regions. Changes in NADH, FAD and O2 levels and blocking metabolic reactions indicate a pronounced contribution of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in the LSO which is known for the other brain regions as well. Lactate transport and interconversion are involved in LSO metabolism as we found in immunohistochemical and pharmacological experiments. Our findings show that the LSO represents an apt, biophysically distinct model for brain metabolism and that neuronal properties determine metabolic needs.

Inferior Olivary TMEM16B Mediates Cerebellar Motor Learning.

Ca2+-activated ion channels shape membrane excitability and Ca2+ dynamics in response to cytoplasmic Ca2+ elevation. Compared to the Ca2+-activated K+ channels, known as BK and SK channels, the physiological importance of Ca2+-activated Cl- channels (CaCCs) in neurons has been largely overlooked. Here we report that CaCCs coexist with BK and SK channels in inferior olivary (IO) neurons that send climbing fibers to innervate cerebellar Purkinje cells for the control of motor learning and timing. Ca2+ influx through the dendritic high-threshold voltage-gated Ca2+ channels activates CaCCs, which contribute to membrane repolarization of IO neurons. Loss of TMEM16B expression resulted in the absence of CaCCs in IO neurons, leading to markedly diminished action potential firing of IO neurons in TMEM16B knockout mice. Moreover, these mutant mice exhibited severe cerebellar motor learning deficits. Our findings thus advance the understanding of the neurophysiology of CaCCs and the ionic basis of IO neuron excitability.

Abnormalities in substance P neurokinin-1 receptor binding in key brainstem nuclei in sudden infant death syndrome related to prematurity and sex.

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) involves failure of arousal to potentially life threatening events, including hypoxia, during sleep. While neuronal dysfunction and abnormalities in neurotransmitter systems within the medulla oblongata have been implicated, the specific pathways associated with autonomic and cardiorespiratory failure are unknown. The neuropeptide substance P (SP) and its tachykinin neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1R) have been shown to play an integral role in the modulation of homeostatic function in the medulla, including regulation of respiratory rhythm generation, integration of cardiovascular control, and modulation of the baroreceptor reflex and mediation of the chemoreceptor reflex in response to hypoxia. Abnormalities in SP neurotransmission may therefore result in autonomic dysfunction during sleep and contribute to SIDS deaths. [125I] Bolton Hunter SP autoradiography was used to map the distribution and density of the SP, NK1R to 13 specific nuclei intimately related to cardiorespiratory function and autonomic control in the human infant medulla of 55 SIDS and 21 control (non-SIDS) infants. Compared to controls, SIDS cases exhibited a differential, abnormal developmental profile of the SP/NK1R system in the medulla. Furthermore the study revealed significantly decreased NK1R binding within key medullary nuclei in SIDS cases, principally in the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) and all three subdivisions of the inferior portion of the olivo-cerebellar complex; the principal inferior olivary complex (PIO), medial accessory olive (MAO) and dorsal accessory olive (DAO). Altered NK1R binding was significantly influenced by prematurity and male sex, which may explain the increased risk of SIDS in premature and male infants. Abnormal NK1R binding in these medullary nuclei may contribute to the defective interaction of critical medullary mechanisms with cerebellar sites, resulting in an inability of a SIDS infant to illicit appropriate respiratory and motor responses to life threatening challenges during sleep. These observations support the concept that abnormalities in a multi-neurotransmitter network within key nuclei of the medullary homeostatic system may underlie the pathogenesis of a subset of SIDS cases.