Characterization of a mammalian orthoreovirus isolated from the large flying fox, Pteropus vampyrus, in Indonesia.

Fruit bats serve as an important reservoir for many zoonotic pathogens, including Nipah virus, Hendra virus, Marburg virus and Lyssavirus. To gain a deeper insight into the virological characteristics, pathogenicity and zoonotic potential of bat-borne viruses, recovery of infectious viruses from field samples is important. Here, we report the isolation and characterization of a mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV) from a large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus) in Indonesia, which is the first detection of MRV in Southeast Asia. MRV was recovered from faecal samples of three different P. vampyrus in Central Java. Nucleotide sequence analysis revealed that the genome of the three MRV isolates shared more than 99% nucleotide sequence identity. We tentatively named one isolated strain as MRV12-52 for further analysis and characterization. Among 10 genome segments, MRV12-52 S1 and S4, which encode the cell-attachment protein and outer capsid protein, had 93.6 and 95.1% nucleotide sequence identities with known MRV strains, respectively. Meanwhile, the remaining genome segments of MRV12-52 were divergent with 72.9-80.7 % nucleotide sequence identities. Based on the nucleotide sequence of the S1 segment, MRV12-52 was grouped into serotype 2, and phylogenetic analysis demonstrated evidence of past reassortment events. In vitro characterization of MRV12-52 showed that the virus efficiently replicated in BHK-21, HEK293T and A549 cells. In addition, experimental infection of laboratory mice with MRV12-52 caused severe pneumonia with 75% mortality. This study highlights the presence of pathogenic MRV in Indonesia, which could serve as a potential animal and public health concern.

Detection of Dengue Virus 1 and Mammalian Orthoreovirus 3, with Novel Reassortments, in a South African Family Returning from Thailand, 2017.

In July 2017, a family of three members, a 46-year-old male, a 45-year-old female and their 8-year-old daughter, returned to South Africa from Thailand. They presented symptoms consistent with mosquito-borne diseases, including fever, headache, severe body aches and nausea. Mosquito bites in all family members suggested recent exposure to arthropod-borne viruses. Dengue virus 1 (Genus Orthoflavivirus) was isolated (isolate no. SA397) from the serum of the 45-year-old female via intracerebral injection in neonatal mice and subsequent passage in VeroE6 cells. Phylogenetic analysis of this strain indicated close genetic identity with cosmopolitan genotype 1 DENV1 strains from Southeast Asia, assigned to major lineage K, minor lineage 1 (DENV1I_K.1), such as GZ8H (99.92%) collected in November 2018 from China, and DV1I-TM19-74 isolate (99.72%) identified in Bangkok, Thailand, in 2019. Serum samples from the 46-year-old male yielded a virus isolate that could not be confirmed as DENV1, prompting unbiased metagenomic sequencing for virus identification and characterization. Illumina sequencing identified multiple segments of a mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV), designated as Human/SA395/SA/2017. Genomic and phylogenetic analyses classified Human/SA395/SA/2017 as MRV-3 and assigned a tentative genotype, MRV-3d, based on the S1 segment. Genomic analyses suggested that Human/SA395/SA/2017 may have originated from reassortments of segments among swine, bat, and human MRVs. The closest identity of the viral attachment protein σ1 (S1) was related to a human isolate identified from Tahiti, French Polynesia, in 1960. This indicates ongoing circulation and co-circulation of Southeast Asian and Polynesian strains, but detailed knowledge is hampered by the limited availability of genomic surveillance. This case represents the rare concurrent detection of two distinct viruses with different transmission routes in the same family with similar clinical presentations. It highlights the complexity of diagnosing diseases with similar sequelae in travelers returning from tropical areas.

Identification of multiple inter- and intra-genotype reassortment mammalian orthoreoviruses from Japanese black cattle in a beef cattle farm.

Mammalian orthoreoviruses (MRVs), belonging to the genus Orthoreovirus in the family Spinareoviridae, possess a double-stranded RNA segmented genome. Due to the segmented nature of their genome, MRVs are prone to gene reassortment, which allows for evolutionary diversification. Recently, a genotyping system for each MRV gene segment was proposed based on nucleotide differences. In the present study, MRVs were isolated from the fecal samples of Japanese Black cattle kept on a farm in Japan. Complete genome sequencing and analysis of 41 MRV isolates revealed that these MRVs shared almost identical sequences in the L1, L2, L3, S3, and S4 gene segments, while two different sequences were found in the S1, M1, M2, M3, and S2 gene segments. By plaque cloning, at least six genetic constellation patterns were identified, indicating the occurrence of multiple inter- (S1 and M2) and intra- (M1, M3, and S2) reassortment events. This paper represents the first report describing multiple reassortant MRVs on a single cattle farm. These MRV gene segments exhibited sequence similarity to those of MRVs isolated from cattle in the U.S. and China, rather than to MRVs previously isolated in Japan. Genotypes consisting solely of bovine MRVs were observed in the L1, M1, and M2 segments, suggesting that they might have evolved within the cattle population.

Isolation and characterization of novel reassortant mammalian orthoreovirus from pigs in the United States.

Mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV) infects multiple mammalian species including humans. A United States Midwest swine farm with approximately one thousand 3-month-old pigs experienced an event, in which more than 300 pigs showed neurological signs, like "down and peddling", with approximately 40% mortality. A novel MRV was isolated from the diseased pigs. Sequence and phylogenetic analysis revealed that the isolate was a reassortant virus containing viral gene segments from three MRV serotypes that infect human, bovine and swine. The M2 and S1 segment of the isolate showed 94% and 92% nucleotide similarity to the M2 of the MRV2 D5/Jones and the S1 of the MRV1 C/bovine/Indiana/MRV00304/2014, respectively; the remaining eight segments displayed 93%-95% nucleotide similarity to those of the MRV3 FS-03/Porcine/USA/2014. Pig studies showed that both MRV-infected and native contact pigs displayed fever, diarrhoea and nasal discharge. MRV RNA was detected in different intestinal locations of both infected and contact pigs, indicating that the MRV isolate is pathogenic and transmissible in pigs. Seroconversion was also observed in experimentally infected pigs. A prevalence study on more than 180 swine serum samples collected from two states without disease revealed 40%-52% positive to MRV. All results warrant the necessity to monitor MRV epidemiology and reassortment as the MRV could be an important pathogen for the swine industry and a novel MRV might emerge to threaten animal and public health.

Molecular characterization of an emerging reassortant mammalian orthoreovirus in China.

Mammalian orthoreoviruses (MRVs) infect almost all mammals, and there are some reports on MRVs in China. In this study, a novel strain was identified, which was designated as HLJYC2017. The results of genetic analysis showed that MRV HLJYC2017 is a reassortant strain. According to biological information analysis, different serotypes of MRV contain specific amino acid insertions and deletions in the σ1 protein. Neutralizing antibody epitope analysis revealed partial cross-protection among MRV1, MRV2, and MRV3 isolates from China. L3 gene recombination in MRV was identified for the first time in this study. The results of this study provide valuable information on MRV reassortment and evolution.

Prevalence and genomic characteristics of a novel reassortment mammalian orthoreovirus type 2 in diarrhea piglets in Sichuan, China.

Mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV), which can infect almost all mammals, is a zoonotic virus. In this study, six strains of type 2 MRV (MRV2) were isolated from 7 diarrhea piglets from a farm that had an outbreak of diarrhea in piglets in 2018, which tested negative for porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV), and porcine group A rotavirus (RAV). The MRV2 isolate infected neonatal piglets, in which it induced severe diarrhea, while the virus was detected in multiple organs of piglets. Moreover, the complete genome of an MRV2 isolate was obtained, which was a novel reassortant MRV strain of human MRV, porcine MRV, chamois MRV, bat MRV, and mink MRV based on the nucleotide identity and phylogenetic tree. The S1 gene of isolate had eight unique amino acid mutations compared with available MRV2 S1 in the GenBank. To investigate the prevalence of this MRV2, 78 samples of diarrhea feces were collected from 10 pig farms in seven regions of Sichuan province. The obtained results showed that the positive rate of samples was 14% (11/78), and positive rate of farms was 60% (6/10), while the amplified fragments shared the identical amino acid mutations with the isolated strain, thus suggesting that this MRV2 strain was already prevalent in Sichuan province. The present study was first to isolate a pig-derived type 2 MRV strain in China, obtaining the complete genome of this strain, which furthers our understanding of the MRV2 epidemic and evolution.

Unexpected Genetic Diversity of Two Novel Swine MRVs in Italy.

Mammalian Orthoreoviruses (MRV) are segmented dsRNA viruses in the family Reoviridae. MRVs infect mammals and cause asymptomatic respiratory, gastro-enteric and, rarely, encephalic infections. MRVs are divided into at least three serotypes: MRV1, MRV2 and MRV3. In Europe, swine MRV (swMRV) was first isolated in Austria in 1998 and subsequently reported more than fifteen years later in Italy. In the present study, we characterized two novel reassortant swMRVs identified in one same Italian farm over two years. The two viruses shared the same genetic backbone but showed evidence of reassortment in the S1, S4, M2 segments and were therefore classified into two serotypes: MRV3 in 2016 and MRV2 in 2018. A genetic relation to pig, bat and human MRVs and other unknown sources was identified. A considerable genetic diversity was observed in the Italian MRV3 and MRV2 compared to other available swMRVs. The S1 protein presented unique amino acid signatures in both swMRVs, with unexpected frequencies for MRV2. The remaining genes formed distinct and novel genetic groups that revealed a geographically related evolution of swMRVs in Italy. This is the first report of the complete molecular characterization of novel reassortant swMRVs in Italy and Europe, which suggests a greater genetic diversity of swMRVs never identified before.

Isolation and identification of two new strains of mammalian orthoreovirus from Chinese tree shrews.

Chinese tree shrews have been used extensively in studies of different types of cancer and for the modeling of viral infections. In the present study, we report the isolation and characterization of two strains of mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV), MRV1/TS/2011 and MRV3/TS/2012, which were isolated from the feces of tree shrews in Yunnan, China. These two strains of MRV were isolated and cultured in both primary tree shrew intestinal epithelial cells (pTIECs) and primary tree shrew alveolar epithelial cells (pTAECs). A neutralization test using immunofluorescence was employed to determine the subtype of each isolate. Viral RNA was extracted and analyzed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), and the sequence was determined by next-generation sequencing for construction of a phylogenetic tree and analysis of gene polymorphism. Electron microscopy examination revealed the presence of virus particles with the typical morphological characteristics of MRV. Serotype analysis showed that strain MRV1/TS/2011 was of type I and strain MRV3/TS/2012 was of type III. A sequence comparison showed that the isolates were 25.4% identical in the S1 gene.

Molecular characterization of a novel reassortment Mammalian orthoreovirus type 2 isolated from a Florida white-tailed deer fawn.

Mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV) is the type species of the genus Orthoreovirus and causes a range of significant respiratory, nervous or enteric diseases in humans and animals. In 2016 a farmed white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) fawn became ill, displaying clinical signs of lethargy, dehydration, and profuse foul-smelling diarrhea. A necropsy was performed after the three-week-old fawn died and various tissue samples were submitted to the University of Florida's Cervidae Health Research Initiative for diagnostic evaluation. Aliquots of homogenized heart, liver, and spleen tissues were inoculated onto Vero E6 cells. After virus-specific cytopathic effects (CPE) were detected in Vero cells inoculated with spleen homogenate, infected cells were fixed in glutaraldehyde and analyzed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), which revealed icosahedral virus particles approximately 75 nm in diameter with morphologies consistent with those of reoviruses within the cytoplasm of the infected cells. RNA extracted from virions in the spent media of infected cells with advanced CPE was used to prepare a cDNA library, which was sequenced using an Illumina MiSeq sequencer. Complete coding sequences for ten separate reovirus segments were attained, and these indicated the isolated agent was a MRV. Genetic and phylogenetic analyses based on the outer capsid sigma-1 (σ1) protein gene sequences supported the Florida white-tailed fawn isolate as a type 2 MRV that branched as the sister group to a MRV-2 strain previously characterized from the urine of a moribund lion (Panthera leo) in Japan. However, analyses based on 7/10 genes (L1-L2, M2-M3, S2-S4) supported the white-tailed deer MRV as the closest relative to a type 3 MRV strain isolated from a dead mink in China. These data suggest the white-tailed deer MRV may have resulted from the natural reassortment of MRVs originating from multiple wildlife species. To our knowledge, this is the first detection of MRV-2 infection in a white-tailed deer. Continued surveillance efforts are needed to determine whether this MRV-2 strain poses a health threat to farmed white-tailed deer populations.

Identification of novel reassortant mammalian orthoreoviruses from bats in Slovenia.

BACKGROUND: Recently, mammalian orthoreoviruses (MRVs) were detected for the first time in European bats, and the closely related strain SI-MRV01 was isolated from a child with severe diarrhoea in Slovenia. Genetically similar strains have also been reported from other mammals, which reveals their wide host distribution. The aim of this study was to retrospectively investigate the occurrence and genetic diversity of MRVs in bats in Slovenia, from samples obtained throughout the country in 2008 to 2010, and in 2012 and to investigate the occurrence of the novel SI-MRV01 MRV variant in Slovenian bats. RESULTS: The detection of MRVs in bat guano was based on broad-range RT-PCR and specific bat MRV real-time RT-PCR. Subsequently, MRV isolates were obtained from cell culture propagation, with detailed molecular characterisation through whole-genome sequencing. Overall, bat MRVs were detected in 1.9% to 3.8% of bats in 2008, 2009 and 2012. However, in 2010 the prevalence was 33.0%, which defined an outbreak of the single SI-MRV01 strain. Here, we report on the identification of five MRV isolates of different serotypes that are designated as SI-MRV02, SI-MRV03, SI-MRV04, SI-MRV05 and SI-MRV06. There is high genetic variability between these characterised isolates, with evident genome reassortment seen across their genome segments. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, we have confirmed the presence of the SI-MRV01 strain in a Slovenian bat population. Moreover, according to genetic characterisation of S1 genome segment, all three MRV serotypes were present in the bat population. In this study, five independent MRV isolates were obtained and detailed whole genome analysis revealed high diversity between them. This study generates new information about the epidemiology and molecular characteristics of emerging bat MRV variants, and provides important molecular data for further studies of their pathogenesis and evolution.

Characterization and pathogenicity of a novel mammalian orthoreovirus from wild short-nosed fruit bats.

Mammalian orthoreoviruses (MRVs) have a wide range of geographic distribution and have been isolated from humans and various animals. This study describes the isolation, molecular characterization and analysis of pathogenicity of MRV variant B/03 from wild short-nosed fruit bats. Negative stain electron microscopy illustrated that the B/03 strain is a non-enveloped icosahedral virus with a diameter of 70nm. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) migration patterns showed that the B/03 viral genome contains 10 segments in a 3:3:4 arrangement. The isolate belongs to MRV serotype 1 based on S1 gene nucleotide sequence data. BALB/c mice experimentally infected with B/03 virus by intranasal inoculation developed severe respiratory distress with tissue damage and inflammation. Lastly, B/03 virus has an increased transmission risk between bats and humans or animals.

Detection and Characterization of a Novel Reassortant Mammalian Orthoreovirus in Bats in Europe.

A renewed interest in mammalian orthoreoviruses (MRVs) has emerged since new viruses related to bat MRV type 3, detected in Europe, were identified in humans and pigs with gastroenteritis. This study reports the isolation and characterization of a novel reassortant MRV from the lesser horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus hipposideros). The isolate, here designated BatMRV1-IT2011, was first identified by electron microscopy and confirmed using PCR and virus-neutralization tests. The full genome sequence was obtained by next-generation sequencing. Molecular and antigenic characterizations revealed that BatMRV1-IT2011 belonged to serotype 1, which had not previously been identified in bats. Phylogenetic and recombination detection program analyses suggested that BatMRV1-IT2011 was a reassortant strain containing an S1 genome segment similar to those of MRV T1/bovine/Maryland/Clone23/59 and C/bovine/ Indiana/MRV00304/2014, while other segments were more similar to MRVs of different hosts, origins and serotypes. The presence of neutralizing antibodies against MRVs has also been investigated in animals (dogs, pigs, bovines and horses). Preliminary results suggested that MRVs are widespread in animals and that infections containing multiple serotypes, including MRVs of serotype 1 with an S1 gene similar to BatMRV1-IT2011, are common. This paper extends the current knowledge of MRVs and stresses the importance to continue and improve MRV surveillance in bats and other mammals through the development and standardization of specific diagnostic tools.

High Incidence of Mammalian Orthoreovirus Identified by Environmental Surveillance in Taiwan.

Wild poliovirus (WPV) persists in diverse locales worldwide, spreading outward from endemic areas. In response to the international threat of WPV transmission and changes in the national vaccination policy, we established an environmental surveillance system to monitor the circulation of wild and vaccine-related poliovirus in Taiwan. From July 2012 to December 2013, we collected sewage specimens every month from 10 sewage treatment plants located throughout Taiwan. The specimens were concentrated by the two-phase separation method and then inoculated into L20B, RD, and A549 cells for virus isolation. Viral isolates were identified and serotyped by immunofluorescence assay or molecular analysis. A total of 300 sewage samples were collected, and the results showed 163 samples (54.3%) were positive for virus, and 268 isolates were identified. Among these, 75 samples (25%) were positive for enterovirus (EV), but no poliovirus was found. In addition, 92 isolates were identified as enteroviruses and the most common serotypes were coxsackievirus B4, coxsackievirus B3, and coxsackievirus B2. Interestingly, 102 (34%) and 82 (27.3%) specimens were positive for mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV) and adenovirus, respectively. This study confirmed that sewage surveillance can be a useful additional modality for monitoring the possible presence of wild-type or vaccine-derived poliovirus in wastewater, and can indicate the current types of viruses circulating in the population. Furthermore, since MRV was found in children with acute necrotizing encephalopathy and meningitis, the high incidence of MRV detected by environmental surveillance warrants further investigation.

Isolation and identification of bat viruses closely related to human, porcine and mink orthoreoviruses.

Bats have been identified as natural reservoirs of many viruses, including reoviruses. Recent studies have demonstrated the interspecies transmission of bat reoviruses to humans. In this study, we report the isolation and molecular characterization of six strains of mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV) from Hipposideros and Myotis spp. These isolates were grouped into MRV serotype 1, 2 or 3 based on the sequences of the S1 gene, which encodes the outer coat protein s1. Importantly, we found that three of six bat MRV strains shared high similarity with MRVs isolated from diseased minks, piglets or humans based on the S1 segment, suggesting that interspecies transmission has occurred between bats and humans or animals. Phylogenetic analyses based on the 10 segments showed that the genomic segments of these bat MRVs had different evolution lineages, suggesting that these bat MRVs may have arisen through reassortment of MRVs of different origins.

Isolation and pathogenicity of the mammalian orthoreovirus MPC/04 from masked civet cats.

Mammalian reoviruses (MRVs) are associated with pulmonary infections and have been isolated from humans and various animals experiencing respiratory illness. We report here the first case of an MRV detected in the masked palm civet, which showed the highest similarity to the serotype 3 MRV. Reovirus particles were identified by electron microscopic examination of both negative-stain and thin-section. Genomic pattern analysis on SDS-PAGE showed that MPC/04 had 10-segmented double-strand RNA genome. Intranasal infection of four-week-old female BALB/c mice resulted in fatal respiratory distress but not other routes. Infections caused tissue damage and inflammation. MPC/04 grew to higher titers in the lungs than in other tissues. This research strongly suggests a need for additional experimentation to understand the pathogenic mechanisms of mammalian orthoreoviruses in infected animals and humans.

Isolation and identification of a natural reassortant mammalian orthoreovirus from least horseshoe bat in China.

BACKGROUND: Mammalian orthoreoviruses (MRVs) have a wide geographic distribution and can infect virtually all mammals. Infections in humans may be either symptomatic or asymptomatic. This study describes the isolation and identification of a natural reassortant MRV from least horseshoe bats (Rhinolophus pusillu) in China, referred to as RpMRV-YN2012. METHODS AND RESULTS: The RpMRV-YN2012 was obtained from urine samples of Rhinolophus pusillus by cell culture. Negative-staining electron microscopy revealed that RpMRV-YN2012 was a non-enveloped icosahedral virus with ∼75 nm in diameter. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) migration patterns of the genome segments showed that RpMRV-YN2012 contained 10 segments in a 3:3:4 arrangement. The whole genome sequence of RpMRV2012 was determined. The consensus terminal sequences of all segments of 5'-GCUAh…yUCAUC-3' (h = A, U or C; y = C or U) were similar to the MRV species within the genus Orthoreovirus. Its evolution and evidence of genetic reassortment were analyzed by sequence comparison and phylogenetic analysis. The results showed that RpMRV-YN2012 is a novel serotype 2 MRV that may have originated from reassortment among bat, human, and/or pig MRV strains which associated with diarrhea, acute gastroenteritis and necrotizing encephalopathy in animals and humans. CONCLUSIONS: RpMRV-YN2012 is a novel bat reassortant MRV, which may have resulted from a reassortment involving MRVs known to infect humans and animals. It is necessary to identify whether RpMRV-YN2012 is associated with diarrhea, acute gastroenteritis and necrotizing encephalopathy in clinical patients. In addition, we should carefully monitor its evolution and virulence in real time.

Novel orthoreovirus from mink, China, 2011.

We identified a novel mink orthoreovirus, MRV1HB-A, which seems to be closely related to human strain MRV2tou05, which was isolated from 2 children with acute necrotizing encephalopathy in 2005. Evolution of this virus should be closely monitored so that prevention and control measures can be taken should it become more virulent.

[Isolation and identification of Tupaia orthoreovirus].

Pathogenic viruses can harm acutely the life and health of laboratory tree shrews acutely; however, few papers exist regarding natural pathogenic virus infection in this species. Six fecal samples obtained from dead tree shrews were collected. The fecal supernatant infected Vero cell line resulted in cytopathic effects (CPE) after 72 h. The CPE included granulating, shrinking, rounding, seining and falling off. Electron microscopy showed the isolation was spherical, double-layered capsid, and about 75 nm in diameter. The purified isolation genome was 10 segments in a typical 3:3:4 arrangements, as shown by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). The isolation was confirmed by RT-PCR assays targeting the conserved region of the L1 gene, sequence analysis and reconstruction of a phylogenetic tree. The isolation was a Tupaia Orthoreovirus (TRV), belonging to Mammalian Orthoreovirus (MRV). The obtained strain had the closest phylogenetic relationship to the MRV strain T3/Bat/Germany/342/08. As a zoonotic virus, the novel TRV strain was first isolated from wild tree shrews, which is significant for promoting tree shrew standardization and providing scientific data for preventing zoonotic tree shrew-to-human transmission.

Identification of Mammalian orthoreovirus type 3 in Italian bats.

Summary This study describes the isolation and molecular characterization of Mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV) in microbats. Faecal samples and dead individuals available from rehabilitation centres or collected from known roost sites were virologically tested. In total, 112 carcasses of bats found dead, and 44 faecal samples were analysed. Nineteen viral strains were isolated by in vitro cell culture from faecal and tissue samples of different bat species (Pipistrellus khulii, Tadarida teniotis, Rhinolophus hipposideros and Vespertilio murinus), and they were morphologically identified as reoviruses by negative staining electron microscopy observation. The definitive assignment of all isolates to MRV was confirmed by RT-PCR assays targeting the L1 gene. Through a multiplex RT-PCR assay targeting the S1 gene, we typed 15 of 19 isolates as MRV type 3. Partial L1 (416 bp) and complete S1 (1416 bp) sequences of the isolates were analysed and compared with those of reference strains obtained from GenBank, belonging to the three serotypes. Molecular analysis of the S1 gene revealed that the amino acid residues associated with neurotropism (198-204NLAIRLP, 249I, 350D and 419E) were highly conserved among the Italian bat strains. These results suggest that potentially neurotropic MRV type 3 strains are widespread among Italian bats. Furthermore, the identification of MRV type 3 in bat species such as Pipistrellus Khulii, which is common in urban areas and known for its close contact with humans, underlines the need for vigilance.

Serotype-specific differences in inhibition of reovirus infectivity by human-milk glycans are determined by viral attachment protein σ1.

Human milk contains many bioactive components, including secretory IgA, oligosaccharides, and milk-associated proteins. We assessed the antiviral effects of several components of milk against mammalian reoviruses. We found that glucocerebroside (GCB) inhibited the infectivity of reovirus strain type 1 Lang (T1L), whereas gangliosides GD3 and GM3 and 3'-sialyllactose (3SL) inhibited the infectivity of reovirus strain type 3 Dearing (T3D). Agglutination of erythrocytes mediated by T1L and T3D was inhibited by GD3, GM3, and bovine lactoferrin. Additionally, α-sialic acid, 3SL, 6'-sialyllactose, sialic acid, human lactoferrin, osteopontin, and α-lactalbumin inhibited hemagglutination mediated by T3D. Using single-gene reassortant viruses, we found that serotype-specific differences segregate with the gene encoding the viral attachment protein. Furthermore, GD3, GM3, and 3SL inhibit T3D infectivity by blocking binding to host cells, whereas GCB inhibits T1L infectivity post-attachment. These results enhance an understanding of reovirus cell attachment and define a mechanism for the antimicrobial activity of human milk.