H2S Increases Blood Pressure via Activation of L-Type Calcium Channels with Mediation by HS• Generated from Reactions with Oxyhemoglobin.

Although the gasotransmitter hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is well known for its vasodilatory effects, H2S also exhibits vasoconstricting properties. Herein, it is demonstrated that administration of H2S as intravenous sodium sulfide (Na2S) increased blood pressure in sheep and rats, and this effect persisted after H2S has disappeared from the blood. Inhibition of the L-type calcium channel (LTCC) diminished the hypertensive effects. Incubation of Na2S with whole blood, red blood cells, methemoglobin, or oxyhemoglobin produced a hypertensive product of H2S, which is not hydrogen thioperoxide, metHb-SH- complexes, per-/poly- sulfides, or thiolsulfate, but rather a labile intermediate. One-electron oxidation of H2S by oxyhemoglobin generated its redox cousin, sulfhydryl radical (HS•). Consistent with the role of HS• as the hypertensive intermediate, scavenging HS• inhibited Na2S-induced vasoconstriction and activation of LTCCs. In conclusion, H2S causes vasoconstriction that is dependent on the activation of LTCCs and generation of HS• by oxyhemoglobin.

Epinephrine-induced Effects on Cerebral Microcirculation and Oxygenation Dynamics Using Multimodal Monitoring and Functional Photoacoustic Microscopy.

BACKGROUND: The administration of epinephrine after severe refractory hypotension, shock, or cardiac arrest restores systemic blood flow and major vessel perfusion but may worsen cerebral microvascular perfusion and oxygen delivery through vasoconstriction. The authors hypothesized that epinephrine induces significant microvascular constriction in the brain, with increased severity after repetitive dosing and in the aged brain, eventually leading to tissue hypoxia. METHODS: The authors investigated the effects of intravenous epinephrine administration in healthy young and aged C57Bl/6 mice on cerebral microvascular blood flow and oxygen delivery using multimodal in vivo imaging, including functional photoacoustic microscopy, brain tissue oxygen sensing, and follow-up histologic assessment. RESULTS: The authors report three main findings. First, after epinephrine administration, microvessels exhibited severe immediate vasoconstriction (57 ± 6% of baseline at 6 min, P < 0.0001, n = 6) that outlasted the concurrent increase in arterial blood pressure, while larger vessels demonstrated an initial increase in flow (108 ± 6% of baseline at 6 min, P = 0.02, n = 6). Second, oxyhemoglobin decreased significantly within cerebral vessels with a more pronounced effect in smaller vessels (microvessels to 69 ± 8% of baseline at 6 min, P < 0.0001, n = 6). Third, oxyhemoglobin desaturation did not indicate brain hypoxia; on the contrary, brain tissue oxygen increased after epinephrine application (from 31 ± 11 mmHg at baseline to 56 ± 12 mmHg, 80% increase, P = 0.01, n = 12). In the aged brains, microvascular constriction was less prominent yet slower to recover compared to young brains, but tissue oxygenation was increased, confirming relative hyperoxia. CONCLUSIONS: Intravenous application of epinephrine induced marked cerebral microvascular constriction, intravascular hemoglobin desaturation, and paradoxically, an increase in brain tissue oxygen levels, likely due to reduced transit time heterogeneity.

Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid suppresses axonal damage and neurological dysfunction after subarachnoid hemorrhage via the HDAC1/HSP70/TDP-43 axis.

Increased focus has been placed on the role of histone deacetylase inhibitors as crucial players in subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) progression. Therefore, this study was designed to expand the understanding of SAH by exploring the downstream mechanism of the histone deacetylase inhibitor suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) in SAH. The expression of TDP-43 in patients with SAH and rat models of SAH was measured. Then, western blot analysis, immunofluorescence staining, and transmission electron microscope were used to investigate the in vitro effect of TDP-43 on a neuronal cell model of SAH established by oxyhemoglobin treatment. Immunofluorescence staining and coimmunoprecipitation assays were conducted to explore the relationship among histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1), heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), and TDP-43. Furthermore, the in vivo effect of HDAC1 on SAH was investigated in rat models of SAH established by endovascular perforation. High expression of TDP-43 in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with SAH and brain tissues of rat models of SAH was observed, and TDP-43 accumulation in the cytoplasm and the formation of inclusion bodies were responsible for axonal damage, abnormal nuclear membrane morphology, and apoptosis in neurons. TDP-43 degradation was promoted by the HDAC1 inhibitor SAHA via the acetylation of HSP70, alleviating SAH, and this effect was verified in vivo in rat models. In conclusion, SAHA relieved axonal damage and neurological dysfunction after SAH via the HSP70 acetylation-induced degradation of TDP-43, highlighting a novel therapeutic target for SAH.

Knock-Down of CD24 in Astrocytes Aggravates Oxyhemoglobin-Induced Hippocampal Neuron Impairment.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), as one of the most severe hemorrhagic strokes, is closely related to neuronal damage. Neurogenesis is a promising therapy, however, reliable targets are currently lacking. Increasing evidence has indicated that CD24 is associated with the growth of hippocampal neurons and the regulation of neural stem/precursor cell proliferation. To investigate the potential effect of CD24 in astrocytes on neuron growth in the hippocampus, we used a Transwell co-culture system of hippocampal astrocytes and neurons, and oxyhemoglobin (OxyHb) was added to the culture medium to mimic SAH in vitro. A specific lentivirus was used to knock down CD24 expression in astrocytes, which was verified by western blot, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, and immunofluorescent staining. Astrocyte activation, neurite elongation, neuronal apoptosis, and cell viability were also assessed. We first determined the augmented expression level of CD24 in hippocampal astrocytes after SAH. A similar result was observed in cultured astrocytes exposed to OxyHb, and a corresponding change in SHP2/ERK was also noticed. CD24 in astrocytes was then downregulated by the lentivirus, which led to the impairment of axons and dendrites on the co-cultured neurons. Aggravated neuronal apoptosis was induced by the CD24 downregulation in astrocytes, which might be a result of a lower level of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). In conclusion, the knock-down of CD24 in astrocytes suppressed hippocampal neuron growth, in which the SHP2-ERK signaling pathway and BNDF were possibly involved.

MiR-26b-5p-modified hUB-MSCs derived exosomes attenuate early brain injury during subarachnoid hemorrhage via MAT2A-mediated the p38 MAPK/STAT3 signaling pathway.

Early brain injury (EBI) is a major cause of adverse outcomes following subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). There is evidence that mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) - derived exosomes are involved in the repair of SAH. Exosomes were extracted from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hubMSCs) and identified. OxyHb treated PC12 cells were transfected with exosomes alone or together with miR-26b-5p inhibitor. Hub-MSCs derived exosomes promote cell proliferation, inhibit apoptosis and reduce inflammatory mediator expression. Transfection of miR-26b-5p inhibitor abolished the promoting effect of exosomes on the proliferation of PC12 cells, as well as the inhibitory effect on cell apoptosis. In addition, methionine adenosyltransferase II alpha (MAT2A) was one target gene of miR-26b-5p. OxyHb treated PC12 cells were transfected with exosomes alone or together with pcDNA-MAT2A and observed that the promoting effect of exosomes on PC12 cell proliferation was abolished by pcDNA-MAT2A, which was the same as the effect of miR-26b-5p inhibitor. OxyHb treated PC cells incubated with exosomes were transfected with miR-26b-5p inhibitor alone or together with si-MAT2A, respectively, and it was observed that exosomes decreased the phosphorylation levels of p38 MAPK and STAT3 proteins, inhibited cell apoptosis and inflammatory mediator expression, and miR-26b-5p inhibitor abrogated the effects of exosomes, while transfection of si-MAT2A reversed the effects of miR-26b-5p inhibitor. Moreover, injection of miR-26b-5p inhibitor resulted in increased MAT2A and pathway protein expression, increased inflammatory mediators, and aggravated neurological symptoms in the brain tissues of SAH rats.

Rbfox-1 contributes to CaMKIIα expression and intracerebral hemorrhage-induced secondary brain injury via blocking micro-RNA-124.

RNA-binding protein fox-1 homolog 1 (Rbfox-1), an RNA-binding protein in neurons, is thought to be associated with many neurological diseases. To date, the mechanism on which Rbfox-1 worsens secondary cell death in ICH remains poorly understood. In this study, we aimed to explore the role of Rbfox-1 in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)-induced secondary brain injury (SBI) and to identify its underlying mechanisms. We found that the expression of Rbfox-1 in neurons was significantly increased after ICH, which was accompanied by increases in the binding of Rbfox-1 to Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKIIα) mRNA and the protein level of CaMKIIα. In addition, when exposed to exogenous upregulation or downregulation of Rbfox-1, the protein level of CaMKIIα showed a concomitant trend in brain tissue, which further suggested that CaMKIIα is a downstream-target protein of Rbfox-1. The upregulation of both proteins caused intracellular-Ca2+ overload and neuronal degeneration, which exacerbated brain damage. Furthermore, we found that Rbfox-1 promoted the expression of CaMKIIα via blocking the binding of micro-RNA-124 to CaMKIIα mRNA. Thus, Rbfox-1 is expected to be a promising therapeutic target for SBI after ICH.

miR-137 boosts the neuroprotective effect of endothelial progenitor cell-derived exosomes in oxyhemoglobin-treated SH-SY5Y cells partially via COX2/PGE2 pathway.

BACKGROUND: We have previously verified the beneficial effects of exosomes from endothelial progenitor cells (EPC-EXs) in ischemic stroke. However, the effects of EPC-EXs in hemorrhagic stroke have not been investigated. Additionally, miR-137 is reported to regulate ferroptosis and to be involved in the neuroprotection against ischemic stroke. Hence, the present work explored the effects of miR-137-overexpressing EPC-EXs on apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, and ferroptosis in oxyhemoglobin (oxyHb)-injured SH-SY5Y cells. METHODS: The lentiviral miR-137 was transfected into EPCs and then the EPC-EXs were collected. RT-PCR was used to detect the miR-137 level in EPCs, EXs, and neurons. The uptake mechanisms of EPC-EXs in SH-SY5Y cells were explored by the co-incubation of Dynasore, Pitstop 2, Ly294002, and Genistein. After the transfection of different types of EPC-EXs, flow cytometry and expression of cytochrome c and cleaved caspase-3 were used to detect the apoptosis of oxyHb-injured neurons. Neuronal mitochondrial function was assessed by reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) depolarization, and cellular ATP content. Cell ferroptosis was measured by lipid peroxidation, iron overload, degradation of glutathione, and glutathione peroxidase 4. Additionally, recombinational PGE2 was used to detect if activation of COX2/PGE2 pathway could reverse the protection of miR-137 overexpression. RESULTS: The present work showed (1) EPC-EXs could be taken in by SH-SY5Y cells via caveolin-/clathrin-mediated pathways and macropinocytosis; (2) miR-137 was decreased in neurons after oxyHb treatment, and EXsmiR-137 could restore the miR-137 levels; (3) EXsmiR-137 worked better than EXs in reducing the number of apoptotic neurons and pro-apoptotic protein expression after oxyHb treatment; (4) EXsmiR-137 are more effective in improving the cellular MMP, ROS, and ATP level; (5) EXsmiR-137, but not EXs, protected oxyHb-treated SH-SY5Y cells against lipid peroxidation, iron overload, degradation of glutathione, and glutathione peroxidase 4; and (6) EXsmiR-137 suppressed the expression of the COX2/PGE2 pathway, and activation of the pathway could partially reverse the neuroprotective effects of EXsmiR-137. CONCLUSION: miR-137 overexpression boosts the neuroprotective effects of EPC-EXs against apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction in oxyHb-treated SH-SY5Y cells. Furthermore, EXsmiR-137 rather than EXs can restore the decrease in miR-137 levels and inhibit ferroptosis, and the protection mechanism might involve the miR-137-COX2/PGE2 signaling pathway.

Targeting CCL20 inhibits subarachnoid hemorrhage-related neuroinflammation in mice.

Recent evidence suggests that CC chemokine ligand 20 (CCL20) is upregulated after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Here, we investigated the functions of CCL20 in SAH injury and its underlying mechanisms of action. We found that CCL20 is upregulated in an SAH mouse model and in cultured primary microglia and neurons. CCL20-neutralizing antibody alleviated SAH-induced neurological deficits, decreased brain water content and neuronal apoptosis, and repressed microglial activation. We observed increased levels of CCL20, CC chemokine receptor 6 (CCR6), interleukin 1 beta (IL-1ß), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), as well as of microglial activation in microglia treated with oxyhemoglobin (OxyHb). CCL20 or CCR6 knockdown reversed the effects of OxyHb on microglia. Conditioned medium from OxyHb-treated microglia induced neuronal apoptosis, while the percentage of apoptotic neurons in the conditioned medium from microglia transfected with CCL20 siRNA or CCR6 siRNA was decreased. We observed no decrease in OxyHb-induced apoptosis in CCL20-knockdown neurons. Conditioned medium from OxyHb-treated neurons led to microglial activation and induced CCR6, IL-1ß and TNF-α expression, while CCL20 knockdown in neurons or CCR6 knockdown in microglia reversed those effects. Our results thus suggest CCL20 may be targeted to elicit therapeutic benefits after SAH injury.

Oxyhemoglobin nano-recruiter preparation and its application in biomimetic red blood cells to relieve tumor hypoxia and enhance photodynamic therapy activity.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is strongly O2 dependent. Therefore, its therapeutic effects are seriously hindered in hypoxic tumors. Red blood cells are responsible for delivering O2 in the blood. In this manuscript, biomimetic red blood cells (BRBCs) were exploited using a layer-by-layer assembly method, using Fe3O4@CuO, oxyhemoglobin (OxyHb), a photosensitizer and a photo-cross linked acrylate modified hyaluronic acid (HA) gel shell. The Fe3O4@CuO core has very high OxyHb loading efficiency (the adsorption capacity of Fe3O4@CuO for OxyHb is derived to be 0.99 mg mg-1) to ensure a sufficient O2 supply. OxyHb was protected well by the HA shell in order to avoid O2 release during the delivery process in blood before arrival at the tumor tissue. The HA shell protection can be eliminated in position at the tumor to trigger O2 release through hyaluronidase (HAase) triggered HA degradation. Furthermore, Fe3O4 in the nanosystem can provide magnetic field assisted tumor targeting and magnetic resonance imaging of the tumor. Therefore, this work presents a highly efficient all-in-one biomimetic nanomedicine approach to overcome hypoxia and achieve tumor targeting theranostics.

Redox states of hemoglobin determine left ventricle pressure recovery and activity of mitochondrial complex IV in hypoxic rat hearts.

Cardiovascular effects were reported to occur in humans and in animal models during transfusion with hemoglobin (Hb)-based oxygen therapeutics. The effects of Hb's iron redox states on cardiac parameters during hypoxia/reoxygenation are however poorly defined. We hypothesize that acute exposures to ferric Hb during hypoxia leads to cardiomyocyte injury and an impaired left ventricular response accompanied by cardiac mitochondrial bioenergetic dysfunction. Recovery of left ventricular functions in an isolated rat heart Langendorff perfusion system was observed following perfusion with ferrous but not with ferric Hb. Ferric Hb induced the development of heart lesions, and impairment of the respiratory chain complex activity. Under normoxia, a sharp decline in cardiac parameters was observed following co-perfusion of low (20 µM) and high (100 µM) ascorbic acid (Asc) with ferrous Hb. This trend continued with ferric Hb co-perfusion, but only at the higher concentration of Asc. These observations suggest that perfusion of the hypoxic heart with ferric Hb increases oxidative stress thereby resulting in cardiac dysfunction. Intervention with Asc to reduce ferric Hb may offer a strategy to control Hb toxicity; however, timing of administration, and dosage of Asc may require individual optimization to target specific redox forms of Hb.

The important role of connexin 43 in subarachnoid hemorrhage-induced cerebral vasospasm.

BACKGROUND: Gap junctions are involved in the development of cerebral vasospasm (CVS) after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). However, the specific roles and regulatory functions of related connexin isoforms remain unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the importance of connexin 43 (Cx43) in CVS and determine whether Cx43 alterations are modulated via the protein kinase C (PKC) signaling transduction pathway. METHODS: Oxyhemoglobin (OxyHb)-induced smooth muscle cells of basilar arterial and second-injection model in rat were used as CVS models in vitro and in vivo. In addition, dye transfer assays were used for gap junction-mediated intercellular communication (GJIC) observation in vitro and delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI) was observed in vivo by perfusion-weighted imaging (PWI) and intravital fluorescence microscopy. RESULTS: Increase in Cx43 mediated the development of SAH-induced CVS was found in both in vitro and in vivo CVS models. Enhanced GJIC was observed in vitro CVS model, this effect and increased Cx43 were reversed by preincubation with specific PKC inhibitors (chelerythrine or GF 109203X). DCI was observed in vivo on day 7 after SAH. However, DCI was attenuated by pretreatment with Cx43 siRNA or PKC inhibitors, and the increased Cx43 expression in vivo was also reversed by Cx43 siRNA or PKC inhibitors. CONCLUSIONS: These data provide strong evidence that Cx43 plays an important role in CVS and indicate that changes in Cx43 expression may be mediated by the PKC pathway. The current findings suggest that Cx43 and the PKC pathway are novel targets for developing treatments for SAH-induced CVS.

Peroxiredoxin 2 activates microglia by interacting with Toll-like receptor 4 after subarachnoid hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND: Peroxiredoxin (Prx) protein family have been reported as important damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in ischemic stroke. Since peroxiredoxin 2 (Prx2) is the third most abundant protein in erythrocytes and the second most protein in the cerebrospinal fluid in traumatic brain injury and subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) patients, we assessed the role of extracellular Prx2 in the context of SAH. METHODS: We introduced a co-culture system of primary neurons and microglia. Prx2 was added to culture medium with oxyhemoglobin (OxyHb) to mimic SAH in vitro. Neuronal cell viability was assessed by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay, and neuronal apoptosis was determined by TUNEL staining. Inflammatory factors in culture medium were measured by ELISA, and their mRNA levels in microglia were determined by qPCR. Toll-like receptor 4 knockout (TLR4-KO) mice were used to provide TLR4-KO microglia; ST-2825 was used to inhibit MyD88, and pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) was used to inhibit NF-κB. Related cellular signals were analyzed by Western blot. Furthermore, we detected the level of Prx2 in aneurysmal SAH patients' cerebrospinal fluids (CSF) and compared its relationship with Hunt-Hess grades. RESULTS: Prx2 interacted with TLR4 on microglia after SAH and then activated microglia through TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway. Pro-inflammatory factors were expressed and released, eventually caused neuronal apoptosis. The levels of Prx2 in SAH patients positively correlated with Hunt-Hess grades. CONCLUSIONS: Extracellular Prx2 in CSF after SAH is a DAMP which resulted in microglial activation via TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway and then neuronal apoptosis. Prx2 in patients' CSF may be a potential indicator of brain injury and prognosis.

Erythropoietin ameliorates early brain injury after subarachnoid haemorrhage by modulating microglia polarization via the EPOR/JAK2-STAT3 pathway.

Inflammatory modulation mediated by microglial M1/M2 polarization is one of the main pathophysiological processes involved in early brain injury (EBI) after subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH). Previous studies have shown that recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) alleviates EBI following experimental SAH. However, the mechanisms of this beneficial effect are still poorly understood. Recent research has suggested that EPO shows anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, we tried to analyse whether rhEPO administration influenced microglial M1/M2 polarization in early brain injury after SAH and to identify the underlying molecular mechanism of any such effect. We found that treatment with rhEPO markedly ameliorated SAH-induced EBI, as shown by reductions in brain cell apoptosis, neuronal necrosis, albumin exudation and brain edema. Moreover, the expression levels of p-JAK2 and p-STAT3 were significantly increased in the cortex after SAH induction and were further increased by EPO treatment; in addition, the p-JAK2 inhibitor AZD1480 impaired the protective effect of EPO against SAH-induced EBI in vivo. Furthermore, EPO promoted the polarization of microglia towards the protective M2 phenotype and alleviated inflammation. In cultured microglia under oxyhemoglobin (OxyHb) treatment, EPO up-regulated the expression of the EPO receptor (EPOR), which did not occur in response to OxyHb treatment alone, and EPO magnified OxyHb-induced increases in p-JAK2 and p-STAT3 and modulated OxyHb-challenged microglial polarization towards M2. Interestingly, the effect of EPO on microglia polarization was cancelled by EPOR knockdown or by p-JAK2 or p-STAT3 inhibition, suggesting a core role of the EPOR/JAK2/STAT3 pathway in modulating microglial function and phenotype. In conclusion, the therapeutic effect of rhEPO on the early brain injury after SAH may relate to its modulation of inflammatory response and microglia M1/M2 polarization, which may be mediated in part by the EPOR/JAK2/STAT3 signalling pathway. These results improved the understanding of the anti-inflammatory effect of EPO on microglia polarization, which might optimize the therapeutic modalities of EPO treatment with SAH.

Transient receptor potential channel 1/4 reduces subarachnoid hemorrhage-induced early brain injury in rats via calcineurin-mediated NMDAR and NFAT dephosphorylation.

Transient receptor potential channel 1/4 (TRPC1/4) are considered to be related to subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH)-induced cerebral vasospasm. In this study, a SAH rat model was employed to study the roles of TRPC1/4 in the early brain injury (EBI) after SAH. Primary cultured hippocampal neurons were exposed to oxyhemoglobin to mimic SAH in vitro. The protein levels of TRPC1/4 increased and peaked at 5 days after SAH in rats. Inhibition of TRPC1/4 by SKF96365 aggravated SAH-induced EBI, such as cortical cell death (by TUNEL staining) and degenerating (by FJB staining). In addition, TRPC1/4 overexpression could increase calcineurin activity, while increased calcineurin activity could promote the dephosphorylation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR). Calcineurin antagonist FK506 could weaken the neuroprotection and the dephosphorylation of NMDAR induced by TRPC1/4 overexpression. Contrarily, calcineurin agonist chlorogenic acid inhibited SAH-induced EBI, even when siRNA intervention of TRPC1/4 was performed. Moreover, calcineurin also could lead to the nuclear transfer of nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT), which is a transcription factor promoting the expressions of TRPC1/4. TRPC1/4 could inhibit SAH-induced EBI by supressing the phosphorylation of NMDAR via calcineurin. TRPC1/4-induced calcineurin activation also could promote the nuclear transfer of NFAT, suggesting a positive feedback regulation of TRPC1/4 expressions.

The Ras/Raf/Erk Pathway Mediates the Subarachnoid Hemorrhage-Induced Apoptosis of Hippocampal Neurons Through Phosphorylation of p53.

Apoptosis plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of early brain injury (EBI) following subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). However, the exact molecular mechanisms underlying neuronal apoptosis in EBI after SAH have not been fully elucidated. The present study showed that EBI induced significantly neuronal apoptosis activation of Ras/Raf/Erk signals in hippocampus after SAH. Intracisternal administration of PD98059, an inhibitor of Erk1/2, decreased the hippocampal neuronal apoptosis and alleviated the cognitive deficits induced by SAH. Interestingly, an increase in phosphorylation of p53 was paralleled with p-Erk, and PD98059 also blocked the level of p-p53. In primary cultures, oxyhemoglobin (OxyHb) treatment significantly increased p-Erk, p-p53, and apoptosis, which was used to mimic the pathological injury of SAH. Both p53 small interfering RNA (siRNA) and PD98059 reduced the OxyHb-induced apoptosis. Moreover, PD98059 significantly decreased the levels of p-Erk and p-p53; however, p53 siRNA had little effect on the level of p-Erk. Taken together, our study implicates that the Ras/Raf/Erk signals contribute to neuronal death through the phosphorylation of p53 in hippocampus after SAH and also suggests Erk/p53 as a potential target for clinical drug treatment of SAH.

Normothermic preservation of the rat hind limb with artificial oxygen-carrying hemoglobin vesicles.

BACKGROUND: For managing major limb amputation, it is important to consider ischemic time and reperfusion injury by free radicals after the blood supply is reestablished. State of preservation during transplant surgery is crucial for the survival and function of the tissue, graft, or organ. In this study, we confirmed the effect of intermittent blood flow in rat ischemic hind limb and developed a new oxygenic preservation method using artificial oxygen carrying hemoglobin vesicles (HbVs). METHODS: We first compared a continuous ischemic model and an intermittent reflow model on rat hind limb. At postoperative day 7, hind limbs were evaluated. Next, we performed total amputation, normothermic preservation by perfusion with extracellular-trehalose-Kyoto (ETK) solution or HbV, and microsurgical replantation of the left hind limb. Venous efflux was analyzed, the amputated limb evaluated after 6 hr perfusion, and the replantation outcome of each model was compared. RESULTS: In our early study, 24 hr continuous ischemic model necrotized, but intermittent reflow model almost survived except for partial necrosis at postoperative day 7. Scar tissue on the right limb showed myonecrosis and infiltration of inflammatory cells. Skeletal muscle on the right limb was structurally well maintained. Hemoglobin vesicle-treated limbs appeared to have much better oxygenation than ETK-treated limbs. Aerobic respiration remained in the amputated limb, gastrocnemius muscle was well maintained, and the overall replantation was successful in the limb preserved using HbV. CONCLUSION: These studies demonstrated that oxygenic preservation is effective for rat ischemic limb, suggesting that this method may be useful for other replantation and transplantation surgeries.

The impact of nitric oxide on calcium homeostasis in PE/CA-PJ15 cells.

OBJECTIVE: Nitric oxide (NO) production and Ca(2+) homeostasis are key determinants for the control of many cell functions. NO is known to be a mediator of Ca(2+) homeostasis in a highly complex and cell-specific manner and although Ca(2+) homeostasis has been explored in human oral cancer cells, the exact mechanisms are not completely understood. In this study we investigated the impact of exogenous NO on [Ca(2+)]c homeostasis in PE/CA-PJ15 cells. DESIGN: Cells were treated with S-nitrosocysteine as NO-donor and the determinations of cytosolic Ca(2+) concentrations were performed using FURA-2 AM. Carbonyl cyanide p-(trifluoromethoxy) phenylhydrazone (FCCP) and oligomycin were used to challenge mitochondrial functionality, whereas thapsigargin (TG) and La(3+) were employed to perturb intracellular calcium levels. RESULTS: NO derived from S-nitrosocysteine (CySNO) induced a dose-dependent reduction of cytosolic calcium [Ca(2+)]c whereas oxy-haemoglobin (oxyHb) completely counteracted this effect. Subsequently, we assessed possible relationships between NO and cellular structures responsible for Ca(2+) homeostasis. We found that uncoupling of mitochondrial respiration with carbonyl-cyanide-4-(trifluoromethoxy)-phenylhydrazone (FCCP) and oligomycin strongly reduced the effect of NO on [Ca(2+)]c. Moreover, we found that during this mitochondrial energetic deficit, the effect of NO on [Ca(2+)]c was also reduced in the presence of La(3+) or thapsigargin. CONCLUSIONS: NO induces a concentration-dependent [Ca(2+)]c reduction in PE/CA-PJ15 human oral cancer cells and potentiates mitochondrial Ca(2+) buffering in the presence of TG or La(3+). Further, we show that exogenous NO deregulates Ca(2+) homeostasis in PE/CA-PJ15 cells with fully energized mitochondria.

Adequacy of a compartment model for CMRO2 quantitation using ¹5O-labeled oxygen and PET: a clearance measurement of ¹5O-radioactivity following intracarotid bolus injection of ¹5O-labeled oxyhemoglobin on Macaca fascicularis.

We aimed at evaluating the adequacy of the commonly employed compartmental model for quantitation of cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen (CMRO2) using (15)O-labeled oxygen ((15)O2) and positron emission tomography (PET). Sequential PET imaging was carried out on monkeys following slow bolus injection of blood samples containing (15)O2-oxyhemoglobin ((15)O2-Hb), (15)O-labeled water (H2(15)O), and C(15)O-labeled hemoglobin (C(15)O-Hb) into the internal carotid artery (ICA). Clearance slopes were assessed in the middle cerebral artery territory of the injected hemisphere. The time-activity curves were bi-exponential for both (15)O2-Hb and H2(15)O. Single exponential fitting to the early (5 to 40 seconds) and late (80 to 240 seconds) periods after the peak was performed and the (15)O2-Hb and H2(15)O results were compared. It was found that a significant difference between the clearance rates of the (15)O2-Hb and H2(15)O injections is unlikely, which supports the mathematical model that is widely used to describe the kinetics of (15)O2-Hb and H2(15)O in cerebral tissues and is the basis of recent approaches to simultaneously assess CMRO2 and cerebral blood flow in a single PET session. However, it should be noted that more data are necessary to unequivocally confirm the result.

Hemoglobin regulates the migration of glioma cells along poly(ε-caprolactone)-aligned nanofibers.

Aligned fibers have been shown to facilitate cell migration in the direction of fiber alignment while oxygen (O2 )-carrying solutions improve the metabolism of cells in hypoxic culture. Therefore, U251 aggregate migration on poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL)-aligned fibers was studied in cell culture media supplemented with the O2 storage and transport protein hemoglobin (Hb) obtained from bovine, earthworm and human sources at concentrations ranging from 0 to 5 g/L within a cell culture incubator exposed to O2 tensions ranging from 1 to 19% O2 . Individual cell migration was quantified using a wound healing assay. In addition, U251 cell aggregates were developed and aggregate dispersion/cell migration quantified on PCL-aligned fibers. The results of this work show that the presence of bovine or earthworm Hb improved individual cell viability at 1% O2 , while human Hb adversely affected cell viability at increasing Hb concentrations and decreasing O2 levels. The control data suggests that decreasing the O2 tension in the incubator from 5 to 1% O2 decreased aggregate dispersion on the PCL-aligned fibers. However, the addition of bovine Hb at 5% O2 significantly improved aggregate dispersion. At 19% O2 , Hb did not impact aggregate dispersion. Also at 1% O2 , aggregate dispersion appeared to increase in the presence of earthworm Hb, but only at the latter time points. Taken together, these results show that Hb-based O2 carriers can be utilized to improve O2 availability and the migration of glioma spheroids on nanofibers.

Sulforaphane enhances the activity of the Nrf2-ARE pathway and attenuates inflammation in OxyHb-induced rat vascular smooth muscle cells.

AIM: A growing body of evidence indicates that the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2-antioxidant response element (Nrf2-ARE) pathway plays a protective role in many physiological stress processes such as inflammatory damage, oxidative stress, and the accumulation of toxic metabolites, which are all involved in the cerebral vasospasm following subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). We hypothesized that the Nrf2-ARE pathway might have a protective role in cerebral vasospasm following SAH. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In our study, we investigate whether the oxyhemoglobin (OxyHb) can induce the activation of the Nrf2-ARE pathway in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), and evaluate the modulatory effects of sulforaphane (SUL) on OxyHb-induced inflammation in VSMCs. RESULTS: As a result, both the protein level and the mRNA level of the nuclear Nrf2 were significantly increased, while the mRNA levels of two Nrf2-regulated gene products, both heme oxygenase-1 and NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase-1, were also up-regulated in VSMCs induced with OxyHb. A marked increase of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1ß, IL-6 and TNF-α release was observed at 48 h after cells were treated with OxyHb. SUL enhanced the activity of the Nrf2-ARE pathway and suppressed cytokine release. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that the Nrf2-ARE pathway was activated in OxyHb-induced VSMCs. SUL suppressed cytokine release via the activation of the Nrf2-ARE pathway in OxyHb-induced VSMCs.