Music viewed by its entropy content: A novel window for comparative analysis.

Polyphonic music files were analyzed using the set of symbols that produced the Minimal Entropy Description, which we call the Fundamental Scale. This allowed us to create a novel space to represent music pieces by developing: (a) a method to adjust a textual description from its original scale of observation to an arbitrarily selected scale, (b) a method to model the structure of any textual description based on the shape of the symbol frequency profiles, and (c) the concept of higher order entropy as the entropy associated with the deviations of a frequency-ranked symbol profile from a perfect Zipfian profile. We call this diversity index the '2nd Order Entropy'. Applying these methods to a variety of musical pieces showed how the space of 'symbolic specific diversity-entropy' and that of '2nd order entropy' captures characteristics that are unique to each music type, style, composer and genre. Some clustering of these properties around each musical category is shown. These methods allow us to visualize a historic trajectory of academic music across this space, from medieval to contemporary academic music. We show that the description of musical structures using entropy, symbol frequency profiles and specific symbolic diversity allows us to characterize traditional and popular expressions of music. These classification techniques promise to be useful in other disciplines for pattern recognition and machine learning.

Testing Convergent Evolution in Auditory Processing Genes between Echolocating Mammals and the Aye-Aye, a Percussive-Foraging Primate.

Several taxonomically distinct mammalian groups-certain microbats and cetaceans (e.g., dolphins)-share both morphological adaptations related to echolocation behavior and strong signatures of convergent evolution at the amino acid level across seven genes related to auditory processing. Aye-ayes (Daubentonia madagascariensis) are nocturnal lemurs with a specialized auditory processing system. Aye-ayes tap rapidly along the surfaces of trees, listening to reverberations to identify the mines of wood-boring insect larvae; this behavior has been hypothesized to functionally mimic echolocation. Here we investigated whether there are signals of convergence in auditory processing genes between aye-ayes and known mammalian echolocators. We developed a computational pipeline (Basic Exon Assembly Tool) that produces consensus sequences for regions of interest from shotgun genomic sequencing data for nonmodel organisms without requiring de novo genome assembly. We reconstructed complete coding region sequences for the seven convergent echolocating bat-dolphin genes for aye-ayes and another lemur. We compared sequences from these two lemurs in a phylogenetic framework with those of bat and dolphin echolocators and appropriate nonecholocating outgroups. Our analysis reaffirms the existence of amino acid convergence at these loci among echolocating bats and dolphins; some methods also detected signals of convergence between echolocating bats and both mice and elephants. However, we observed no significant signal of amino acid convergence between aye-ayes and echolocating bats and dolphins, suggesting that aye-aye tap-foraging auditory adaptations represent distinct evolutionary innovations. These results are also consistent with a developing consensus that convergent behavioral ecology does not reliably predict convergent molecular evolution.

The vocal repertoire of adult and neonate giant otters (Pteronura brasiliensis).

Animals use vocalizations to exchange information about external events, their own physical or motivational state, or about individuality and social affiliation. Infant babbling can enhance the development of the full adult vocal repertoire by providing ample opportunity for practice. Giant otters are very social and frequently vocalizing animals. They live in highly cohesive groups, generally including a reproductive pair and their offspring born in different years. This basic social structure may vary in the degree of relatedness of the group members. Individuals engage in shared group activities and different social roles and thus, the social organization of giant otters provides a basis for complex and long-term individual relationships. We recorded and analysed the vocalizations of adult and neonate giant otters from wild and captive groups. We classified the adult vocalizations according to their acoustic structure, and described their main behavioural context. Additionally, we present the first description of vocalizations uttered in babbling bouts of new born giant otters. We expected to find 1) a sophisticated vocal repertoire that would reflect the species' complex social organisation, 2) that giant otter vocalizations have a clear relationship between signal structure and function, and 3) that the vocal repertoire of new born giant otters would comprise age-specific vocalizations as well as precursors of the adult repertoire. We found a vocal repertoire with 22 distinct vocalization types produced by adults and 11 vocalization types within the babbling bouts of the neonates. A comparison within the otter subfamily suggests a relation between vocal and social complexity, with the giant otters being the socially and vocally most complex species.

Aspectos endócrinos e funcionais da expressão do hormônio concentrador de melanina (MCH) durante a lactação / Endocrine and functional aspects of melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) expression during lactation

O Hormônio Concentrador de Melanina (MCH) está associado ao controle da ingestão de alimentos, peso corporal e homeostase da energia. Além disso, a lactação é um modelo fisiológico importante para estudar a integração do hipotálamo com os sinais sensoriais periféricos, como a sucção e também aqueles relacionados ao balanço energético. Concentrações mais elevadas de mRNA de MCH têm sido encontrados durante a lactação na área preóptica medial (MPOA) e na parte anterior do núcleo paraventricular do hipotálamo, especialmente em torno do 19º dia de lactação, quando este hormônio revela o seu pico mais alto de expressão do mRNA. O significado fisiológico desse fenômeno não é muito bem compreendido. Neste sentido, o objetivo do presente estudo foi contribuir para a investigação dos fatores que influenciam os sistemas endócrinos e sensoriais na expressão da MCH e a sua relação com alterações neuroendócrinas e comportamentais que envolvem o final da lactação, o desmame e a perpetuação do ciclo reprodutivo. Ratas Wistar (n = 56), foram divididas em subgrupos de quatro animais, as quais foram sacrificadas do 15º ao 21º dia de lactação, com (CS) ou sem (SS) sucção. O MCH e a proteína Fos foram avaliados na área hipotalâmica lateral (LHA), MPOA e área incertohipotalâmica (IHy). A MPOA mostrou uma relação inversa existente entre Fos e MCH. Além disso, observou-se um aumento da proteína Fos no grupo CS, o qual foi menos intensa durante o 18º dia de lactação quando comparado com o 15º dia. Além disso, duplas marcações para MCH e Fos não foram encontradas. Nossos resultados sugerem que a sucção é capaz de influenciar o MCH ao redor do 19º dia de lactação na LHA. Portanto, as áreas que foram encontradas com marcações para Fos podem ser capazes de se comunicarem com as regiões que possuem neurônios produtores de MCH, ou os mecanismos de ativação da expressão de MCH não são repassados via Fos. Sendo assim, parece existir uma relação indireta entre as áreas de ativação neuronal e MCH durante a sucção

Melanin-Concentrating Hormone (MCH) has been largely implicated in the control of food intake, body weight and energy homeostasis. Moreover, lactation is an important physiological model to study hypothalamic integration to peripheral sensory signals, such as suckling stimulus and also those related to energy balance. Higher concentrations of MCH mRNA have been found during lactation in the medial preoptic area (MPOA) and in the anterior part of the paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus, especially around the 19th day of lactation when this hormone reveals its highest peak of mRNA expression, and decrease after weaning. The physiological significance of this phenomenon is unclear. In this sense, the aim of the present study was to contribute to the investigation of sensory and endocrine factors influencing in the expression of MCH and its relationship to neuroendocrine and behavioural changes involving the end of lactation, weaning and perpetuating reproductive cycle. Wistar female rats (n= 56), divided in subgroups of four animals, were sacrificed every day from 15th to 21st day of lactation, with (CS) or without (SS) suckling stimulus. MCH and Fos immunoreactivity (MCH/Fos) was evaluated in the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA), MPOA and incerto-hypothalamic area (IHy). The MPOA showed an inverse relationship between Fos and MCH. Also, we observed an increase in the Fos of the group CS, which was less intense on 18th day when compared to 15th day, while MCH was increased. Besides, no colocalization between MCH and Fos was found. Our results suggest that suckling stimulus is able to influence the MCH around the 19th day of lactation in LHA. Therefore, the areas were we found Fos might have stimulated MCH-producing neurons. Hence, an indirect relationship between the areas of neuronal activation and MCH during suckling stimulus seems likely

Procesamiento emocional en la vejez / Emotional processing in old age

Se cita la etimología de la palabra emoción, la evolución histórica de las diferentes teorías de esta y se profundiza en la Teoría de las emociones de A. Damasio, quien clasifica las emociones como: de fondo, primarias y secundarias, describe el procesamiento emocional, diferencia y define emoción de sentimiento. El planteo es ¿procesan igual las emociones los adultos mayores que los jóvenes?, si fuera así, ¿qué beneficios les traería? Se revisaron trabajos neurobiológicos que muestran un mejor procesamiento de las emociones positivas que de las negativas en la vejez sana a través de estudios con RMCf (Resonancia Magnética de Cerebro funcional). Se cita la Teoría de la selectividad socioemocional. En 1993, L. Carstensen postula que con el envejecimiento se produce un cambio motivacional por el cual las personas jerarquizan las metas, su significado y la optimizacion de su experiencia. Frente a eventos vitales negativos (enfermedades, pérdidas afectivas, etc. las personas mayores siguen manteniendo niveles similares o superiores de bienestar subjetivo es la Paradoja del bienestar en la vejez. Se analizan trabajos sobre emociones y enfermedad de Alzheimer.(AU)

The etymology of the word "emotion" is explained as well as its evolution throughout the years. Antonio Damasios classification of backgrounds, primary and secondary emotions are described along with its differences in moaning with the word "feeling". Two differences in emotional Procedure between older and young adults are mentions. RMCf was shown a better positive emotional processing in old age. From Social Theories, Selectivity, Hierarchical organization of goals, paradox in the elderly, emotional balance, and subjective dimensions and shown. The relationship between these change and life quality during normal and pathological aging as well as Alzheimers disease is also mentions.(AU)

Procesamiento emocional en la vejez / Emotional processing in old age

Se cita la etimología de la palabra emoción, la evolución histórica de las diferentes teorías de esta y se profundiza en la Teoría de las emociones de A. Damasio, quien clasifica las emociones como: de fondo, primarias y secundarias, describe el procesamiento emocional, diferencia y define emoción de sentimiento. El planteo es ¿procesan igual las emociones los adultos mayores que los jóvenes?, si fuera así, ¿qué beneficios les traería? Se revisaron trabajos neurobiológicos que muestran un mejor procesamiento de las emociones positivas que de las negativas en la vejez sana a través de estudios con RMCf (Resonancia Magnética de Cerebro funcional). Se cita la Teoría de la selectividad socioemocional. En 1993, L. Carstensen postula que con el envejecimiento se produce un cambio motivacional por el cual las personas jerarquizan las metas, su significado y la optimizacion de su experiencia. Frente a eventos vitales negativos (enfermedades, pérdidas afectivas, etc. las personas mayores siguen manteniendo niveles similares o superiores de bienestar subjetivo es la Paradoja del bienestar en la vejez. Se analizan trabajos sobre emociones y enfermedad de Alzheimer.

The etymology of the word "emotion" is explained as well as its evolution throughout the years. Antonio Damasio's classification of backgrounds, primary and secondary emotions are described along with its differences in moaning with the word "feeling". Two differences in emotional Procedure between older and young adults are mentions. RMCf was shown a better positive emotional processing in old age. From Social Theories, Selectivity, Hierarchical organization of goals, paradox in the elderly, emotional balance, and subjective dimensions and shown. The relationship between these change and life quality during normal and pathological aging as well as Alzheimer's disease is also mentions.

Vibrissal paralysis unveils a preference for textural rather than positional novelty in the one-trial object recognition task in rats.

In order to explore the role of active whisking in object novelty detection, the performance of rats having bilateral vibrissal paralysis was compared to that of non-lesioned animals in three modified versions of the one-trial object recognition task performed in the dark. Vibrissal paralysis was induced by crushing the buccal and mandibular branches of the facial nerve. Lesioned animals were not different from non-lesioned ones in terms of weight-gain, locomotive activity, motivation to explore, and ability to become habituated to a given environment. Only lesioned animals were unable to discriminate a change in object texture as novelty cue in the first task, designed to test textural novelty detection. In the second task, designed to test positional novelty detection, both lesioned and non-lesioned subjects were able to discriminate a change in object position as novelty cue. In the third task, designed to force the subjects to choose between two conflicting novelty cues (texture and position), non-lesioned subjects displayed a clear-cut preference for textural novelty while subjects having bilateral vibrissal paralysis preferred positional novelty. According to these results, active whisking is necessary for textural, but not for positional novelty detection. Moreover, these results indicate that textural novelty in non-lesioned animals seems to overcome positional novelty if these are in competition in an object recognition memory task.

Infusion of protein synthesis inhibitors in the entorhinal cortex blocks consolidation but not reconsolidation of object recognition memory.

Memory consolidation and reconsolidation require the induction of protein synthesis in some areas of the brain. Here, we show that infusion of the protein synthesis inhibitors anisomycin, emetine and cycloheximide in the entorhinal cortex immediately but not 180 min or 360 min after training in an object recognition learning task hinders long-term memory retention without affecting short-term memory or behavioral performance. Inhibition of protein synthesis in the entorhinal cortex after memory reactivation involving either a combination of familiar and novel objects or two familiar objects does not affect retention. Our data suggest that protein synthesis in the entorhinal cortex is necessary early after training for consolidation of object recognition memory. However, inhibition of protein synthesis in this cortical region after memory retrieval does not seem to affect the stability of the recognition trace.

Chemically mediated burrow recognition in the Mexican tarantula Brachypelma vagans female.

Chemically mediated communication is common in spiders but has been poorly studied in burrowing tarantulas. This study aimed to determine whether chemical cues influence the behaviour of females of Brachypelma vagans, a Mexican species of tarantula, during encounters with previously inhabited burrows or with extracts from the silk of conspecific females. In laboratory choice tests, female tarantulas entered a burrow that had previously been inhabited by a conspecific female significantly more frequently than a burrow that had never been inhabited. The identity of the previous inhabitant also affected the number of spiders that chose to enter a burrow. Spiders were quicker to choose and enter a burrow previously inhabited by themselves than a burrow previously inhabited by a conspecific or a burrow that had not been previously inhabited. Hexane, methanol and dichloromethane extracts of conspecific silk elicited different responses from female tarantulas when extracts were placed on filter paper disks at one end of an experimental arena with a control filter paper disk, on to which the corresponding solvent alone had been pipetted, placed on the other end of the arena. Spiders showed the strongest responses to hexane extracts of silk, with a significant preference to move towards the hexane extract and a significantly greater period of time spent in proximity to the hexane extract compared to the control disk. Overall and in contrast to expectations, tarantulas were most strongly attracted to the cues left by other conspecific females. As encounters between B. vagans females usually lead to aggression and mortality of one of the participants, we conclude that chemical cues are not signals that are deliberately released by burrow-inhabiting females but may inadvertently escape and cannot be easily suppressed.

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 olfactory impairment shows a pattern similar to other major neurodegenerative diseases.

Olfactory function is affected in different neurodegenerative diseases. Recently, it has been found that some hereditary ataxias are also associated with significant olfactory impairment. However, the initial findings did not examine the nature of the olfactory impairment associated with these ataxias. In the present article the effect of spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2) on olfactory function was studied in 53 SCA2 patients and 53 healthy control subjects from Holguín, Cuba. Several tests were applied to evaluate olfactory threshold, description, identification and discrimination. The results show significant impairment in SCA2 patients on all olfactory measurements, and the pattern of olfactory deficits found suggests that they have much in common with those reported for other neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases.