Hair cortisol concentration and its association with acute stress responses and recovery in a sample of medical students in Germany.

INTRODUCTION: Experiencing acute and chronic stress can contribute to adverse health outcomes. Responses to acute stress differ between individuals (i.e., stress reactivity) and the experience of chronic stress has been discussed to be associated with acute stress responses and stress recovery. This study thus aims to investigate whether hair cortisol concentration (HCC), being an indicator for hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity over a prolonged period of time, is associated with acute stress responses and recovery in a sample of medical students. MATERIAL AND METHODS: From July 2020 to July 2021, medical students (n = 54) underwent a virtual-reality Trier Social Stress Test in which their blood pressure and heart rate variability (HRV) were measured, and hair samples were taken to determine HCC. Piecewise linear growth analyses were used to investigate whether HCC (categorized into low, medium and high levels) is associated with acute stress responses and recovery regarding blood pressure and HRV. RESULTS: Significant interaction effects in piecewise linear growth analyses showed that participants with higher levels of HCC had lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure responses compared to participants with medium levels of HCC. No significant interaction effects were observed for HRV responses or for recovery measures. CONCLUSIONS: The study suggests that higher levels of HCC are associated with a lower cardiovascular response in terms of blood pressure to an acute stressor in medical students. Therefore, long-term HPA-axis activity may contribute to different magnitudes of acute stress responses in the autonomic nervous system. As the shown lower blood pressure responses to acute stress in individuals with increased long-term HPA-axis activity may represent inadequate stress responses, these should be further studied in order to find out more about their interaction and potential subsequent disease risks.

Negative associations between maternal prenatal hair cortisol and child socioemotional problems.

Maternal prenatal distress can participate in the programming of offspring development, in which exposure to altered maternal long-term cortisol levels as measured by hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) may contribute. Yet, studies investigating whether and how maternal prenatal HCC associates with problems in child socioemotional development are scarce. Furthermore, questions remain regarding the timing and potential sex-specificity of fetal exposure to altered cortisol levels and whether there are interactions with maternal prenatal distress, such as depressive symptoms. The subjects were drawn from those FinnBrain Birth Cohort families that had maternal reports of child socioemotional problems (the Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment [BITSEA] at 2 years and/or the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire [SDQ] at 5 years) as follows: HCC1 population: maternal mid-pregnancy HCC measured at gestational week 24 with 5 cm segments to depict cortisol levels from the previous five months (n = 321); and HCC2 population: end-of-pregnancy HCC measured 1-3 days after childbirth (5 cm segment; n = 121). Stepwise regression models were utilized in the main analyses and a sensitivity analysis was performed to detect potential biases. Negative associations were observed between maternal HCC2 and child BITSEA Total Problems at 2 years but not with SDQ Total difficulties at 5 years, and neither problem score was associated with HCC1. In descriptive analyses, HCC2 was negatively associated with Internalizing problems at 2 years and SDQ Emotional problems at 5 years. A negative association was observed among 5-year-old girls between maternal HCC1 and SDQ Total Difficulties and the subscales of Conduct and Hyperactivity/inattentive problems. When interactions were also considered, inverse associations between HCC2 and BITSEA Internalizing and Dysregulation Problems were observed in subjects with elevated prenatal depressive symptoms. It was somewhat surprising that only negative associations were observed between maternal HCC and child socioemotional problems. However, there are previous observations of elevated end-of-pregnancy cortisol levels associating with better developmental outcomes. The magnitudes of the observed associations were, as expected, mainly modest. Future studies with a focus on the individual changes of maternal cortisol levels throughout pregnancy as well as studies assessing both maternal and child HPA axis functioning together with child socioemotional development are indicated.

Cortisol and changes in depressive symptoms: The moderating role of DHEA.

Stress is associated with activation of the hypothalamus-adrenal-axis (HPA). Cortisol, a product of the HPA, is thought to predict depression. However, to date, the majority of studies investigating the cortisol-depression relationship have been cross-sectional and results have been mixed. One possible reason for these mixed findings, may be that many studies fail to consider the moderating role of dehydroepiandosterone (DHEA), which is released alongside cortisol and is thought to serve opposing functions. Therefore, the present study investigated the main and interactive effects of cortisol and DHEA on depressive symptoms. Salivary cortisol and DHEA were measured from saliva throughout the Trier Social Stress task for N = 417 participants at baseline. Participants reported on their depressive symptoms using the Beck Depression Inventory - II at both baseline and follow up (ranging from 1-20 months post baseline; M = 11.60, SD = 5.80) as well as general demographics. The lavaan package in R (version 0.6.11; Rosseel, 2012) was used to conduct multiple regression analyses with FIML to explore the relationships between these variables. Results demonstrated no main effect of cortisol or DHEA, but did show a significant interaction with DHEA. The relations between cortisol and depressive symptoms depended on levels of DHEA such that the relationship was positive at low and negative at high levels of DHEA, with the overall interaction significant (ß = -.22, p < .001, 95% CI = [-.333, -.115]). DHEA can act as a protective factor against depression when cortisol levels are high. This presents opportunities for future research on how to improve DHEA levels to potentially reduce depression.

Evaluating Mixtures of Urinary Phthalate Metabolites and Serum Per-/Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Relation to Adolescent Hair Cortisol: The HOME Study.

Results of toxicological studies indicate that phthalates and per-/polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), 2 classes of endocrine-disrupting chemicals, may alter the functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis. We evaluated the associations of urinary phthalate metabolites and serum PFAS during gestation and childhood with adolescent hair cortisol concentrations (pg/mg hair) at age 12 years, an integrative marker of HPA axis activity (n = 205 mother-child pairs; Cincinnati, Ohio; enrolled 2003-2006). We used quantile-based g-computation to estimate associations between mixtures of urinary phthalate metabolites or serum PFAS and hair cortisol. We also examined whether associations of individual phthalate metabolites or PFAS with cortisol varied by the timing of exposure. We found that a 1-quartile increase in all childhood phthalate metabolites was associated with 35% higher adolescent hair cortisol (phthalate mixture ψ = 0.13; 95% confidence interval: 0.03, 0.22); these associations were driven by monoethyl phthalate, monoisobutyl phthalate, and monobenzyl phthalate. We did not find evidence that phthalate metabolites during gestation or serum PFAS mixtures were related to adolescent hair cortisol concentrations. We found suggestive evidence that higher childhood concentrations of individual PFAS were related to higher and lower adolescent hair cortisol concentrations. Our results suggest that phthalate exposure during childhood may contribute to higher levels of chronic HPA axis activity.

Relationships Among Number of Stressors, Perceived Stress, and Salivary Cortisol Levels During the Third Trimester of Pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE: To examine relationships among the number of stressors, perceived stress, and salivary cortisol levels during the third trimester of pregnancy. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of cross-sectional data. SETTING: Participants' homes. PARTICIPANTS: Women during the third trimester of pregnancy (N = 73). METHODS: Participants provided saliva samples at four time points over 2 days for cortisol assay and completed questionnaires to assess stressors and perceived stress. We computed multiple linear regression models to examine the relationships among the number of stressors and perceived stress to cortisol awakening response, diurnal slope, and overall cortisol secretion. We also computed a multiple linear regression model to examine the relationship between perceived stress and the number of stressors. RESULTS: Greater perceived stress was associated with reduced overall cortisol secretion across the day (ß = -0.41, p = .01). The number of stressors was associated with perceived stress (ß = 0.48, p = .002) but not salivary cortisol measures. CONCLUSION: Elevated perceived stress and the related cortisol alterations that we identified could represent salient targets for enhancing hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function during the third trimester. Perceived stress may shape the relationship between exposure to stressors and cortisol response during pregnancy. Future research is warranted to confirm study results and to understand the implications for parturition and fetal development.

Psychological resilience and cortisol levels in adults: A systematic review.

Resilience or the capacity to "bend but not break" refers to the ability to maintain or regain psychobiological equilibrium during or after exposure to stressful life events. Specifically, resilience has been proposed as a potential resource for staving off pathological states that often emerge after exposure to repeated stress and that are related to alterations in circulating cortisol. The aim of this systematic review of the literature was to gather evidence related to the relationship between psychological resilience and cortisol levels in adult humans. An extensive systematic search was carried out following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) method in the PubMed and Web of Science databases. In total, 1256 articles were identified and, of these, 35 peer-reviewed articles were included in the systematic review. We categorized findings according to (1) the short and long-term secretion period covered by the cortisol matrices selected by studies and also according to (2) the differentiated diurnal, phasic (acute), and tonic (basal) components of the HPA output to which they refer and their relationships with resilience. Reported relationships between psychological resilience and distinct cortisol output parameters varied widely across studies, finding positive, negative, and null associations between the two variables. Notably, several of the studies that found no relationship between resilience and cortisol used a single morning saliva or plasma sample as their assessment of HPA axis activity. Despite limitations such as the great variability of the instruments and methods used by the studies to measure both resilience and cortisol, together with their high heterogeneity and small sample sizes, the evidence found in this systematic review points to the potential of resilience as a modifiable key factor to modulate the physiological response to stress. Therefore, further exploration of the interaction between the two variables is necessary for the eventual development of future interventions aimed at promoting resilience as an essential component of health prevention.

Cortisol response to traumatic stress to predict PTSD symptom development - a systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental studies.

Background: Pre-and post-traumatic hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis markers have been studied to predict posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) risk, but its acute reactivity cannot be measured in real-life settings. Experimental paradigms can depict the cortisol response to stimuli that simulate traumatic events.Objective: To review experimental studies on the cortisol response to traumatic stimuli and the correlation between cortisol and PTSD symptoms.Method: Experimental, (un-)published studies in German or English from any year were eligible if they confronted non-traumatized humans with traumatic stimuli, assessed cortisol before, during or after stimulus presentation and subsequent PTSD symptoms. The literature was searched via PubMed, PubPsych, PsychINFO, PsycArticle, Web of Science, EMBASE, ProQuest and ClinicalTrials.gov up to 16th February 2021. Risk of bias was assessed with the Cortisol Assessment List. Multilevel-meta-analyses were conducted under the random effects model. The standardized mean change (dSMC) indicated the cortisol response. Coefficient r indicated the correlations between cortisol and PTSD symptoms.Results: 14 studies, investigating 1004 individuals, were included. A cortisol response was successfully induced between 21 and 40 min post-presentation onset (kobservations = 25, dSMC = 0.15 [.03; .26]). Cortisol was not associated with overall or cluster-level PTSD symptoms. On a symptom-level, higher pre-presentation onset cortisol was correlated with lower state tension (k = 8, r = -.18 [-.35; -.01]), higher state happiness (k = 8, r = -.34 [-.59; -.03], variable inverted) and lower state anger (k = 9, r = -.14 [-.26; -.01]). Higher post-presentation onset cortisol was correlated with higher state happiness (k = 16, r = -.20 [-.33; -.06]) and lower state sadness (k = 17, r = -.16 [-.25; -.05]), whereas cortisol response was positively correlated with state anxiety (k = 9, r = .16 [0.04; 0.27]).Conclusions: Experimental paradigms effectively induce a cortisol response. Higher basal cortisol, higher cortisol, as measured after traumatic stimulus presentation, and a lower cortisol response were associated with more adaptive emotional reactions. These markers did not predict longer-term PTSD symptoms.

Experimental trauma paradigms successfully induced a cortisol response.Cortisol was predictive for single state, emotion-related symptoms, but not overall PTSD symptoms.Trauma paradigms shed light into the immediate post-trauma period that is hard to capture in real life, but the gap between experimental and naturalistic settings is difficult to overcome.

Hair cortisol, cortisone and DHEA concentrations and the composition of microbiota in toddlers.

Animal research suggests that the gut microbiota and the HPA axis communicate in a bidirectional manner. However, human data, especially on early childhood, remain limited. In this exploratory design, we investigated the connections between long-term HPA axis functioning, measured as cortisol, cortisone or dehydroepiandrosterone concentrations and their ratios from hair segments of three centimeters, and gut microbiota profiles, (measured as diversity and bacterial composition by 16 S rRNA sequencing) in healthy 2.5-year-old toddlers (n = 135) recruited from the FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study. The alpha diversity of the microbiota was studied by linear regression. Beta diversity analyses with weighted UniFrac or Bray-Curtis distances were performed using PERMANOVA. The bacterial core genus level analyses were conducted using DESeq2 and ALDEx2. These analyses suggested that hair sample concentrations of separate hormones, cortisol/cortisone and cortisol/dehydroepiandrosterone ratios were associated with various gut bacterial genera such as the Veillonella, the [Ruminococcus] torques group and [Eubacterium] hallii group, although multiple testing correction attenuated the p-values. Alpha or beta diversity was not linked with either steroid concentrations or ratios. These findings in toddlers suggest that long-term HPA axis activity may be related to genera abundancies but not to ecosystem-level measures in gut microbiota. The influence of these observed interrelations on later child health and development warrants further research.

Lifetime discrimination, habitual and daily everyday discrimination, and diurnal cortisol among older African Americans adults.

Experiences of discrimination can be major life events or daily chronic hassles that occur in various social contexts (e.g., housing, education, employment) and have been found to predict adverse health outcomes, including dysregulation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis. Previous work on daily cortisol dynamics has generally revealed an association between discrimination and flatter cortisol slopes, particularly among racial minorities. However, most of the existing studies have focused on youth and young adults, with little work among older adults. The current study aimed to investigate the relationship between three measures of discrimination (lifetime discrimination, habitual everyday discrimination, and daily everyday discrimination) and diurnal cortisol secretion in a sample of 203 older African Americans. Study results indicated that individuals reporting higher levels of lifetime discrimination experienced morning hypocortisolism and flatter diurnal cortisol slopes. Exploratory analyses also showed that prior daily everyday discrimination was significantly associated with blunted cortisol awakening response (CAR) the next day. Our findings underline the role of discrimination in modulating daily cortisol dynamics among older African American adults and advance knowledge on how social stressors influence healthy aging.

Association between trauma exposure and glucocorticosteroid concentration in hair during pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: Traumatic events, including child abuse and intimate partner violence, are highly prevalent among women of child-bearing age. These traumatic experiences may impact maternal and offspring physical and mental health. A proposed mechanism for these effects is maternal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysregulation which can be measured using hair corticosteroid levels. AIMS: This study aims to examine the association of child abuse and intimate partner violence exposure with HPA axis functioning, as measured by hair corticosteroid levels in a cohort of pregnant women. METHODS: We included data from 1822 pregnant women (mean gestational age 17 weeks) attending a prenatal clinic in Lima, Peru. We extracted cortisol and cortisone concentrations from hair samples using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Each participant provided 6-cm hair samples: 3 cm hair segment closest to the scalp reflecting HCC in early pregnancy (first three months), and 3-6 cm from the scalp reflecting HCC in pre-pregnancy (three months prior to conception). Multivariable linear regression procedures were used to assess the association between maternal trauma exposure and hair corticosteroid levels. RESULTS: Overall, women who experienced child abuse on average had higher levels of cortisol (p < 0.01) and cortisone (p < 0.0001) after adjustment for age, race, adult access to basic foods and hair treatments. For the hair segment reflecting early pregnancy, presence of child abuse was associated with a 0.120 log unit increase in cortisol and a 0.260 log unit increase in cortisone (p < 0.001). For the hair segment reflecting pre-pregnancy, a history of child abuse was associated with a 0.100 log unit increase in cortisol and a 0.180 log unit increase in cortisone (p < 0.01). Results also suggested an impact of intimate partner violence on HPA regulation; however, associations were not statistically significant after controlling for child abuse. CONCLUSIONS: These results underscore the long-lasting impacts of exposure to adversity and trauma during early life. Our study findings will have implications for research investigating HPA axis function and long-term effects of violence on corticosteroid regulation.

Maternal hair cortisol concentrations and its association with increased insulin resistance in midpregnancy.

PURPOSE: Stress and elevated maternal glycemia have negative effects on pregnancy. We evaluated the association of hair cortisol concentrations (HCC), a marker of chronic stress, with insulin resistance and gestational diabetes (GDM). METHODS: In total, 527 women from Lima, Peru, provided a hair sample in the second trimester of their pregnancy to measure HCC using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Each 6 cm of hair captured HCC in early (T1=1-12 weeks) and midpregnancy (T2 = 13-24 weeks). GDM diagnosis was conducted in midpregnancy. Multivariable regression models adjusted for putative risk factorsincluding maternal sociodemographic factors, diabetes history, and hair characteristics, were used to estimate the association of HCC with GDM and various glycemic traits. RESULTS: GDM was diagnosed in 122 (23%) women. Mean HCC across pregnancy was T1 = 3.7 (±3.4) pg/mg and T2 = 4.8 (±3.4) pg/mg. HCC was associated with increased log-transformed units of fasting insulin (T1 = 0.15 [0.03, 0.27], T2 = 0.17 [0.04, 0.30]), homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance (T1 = 0.14 [0.01, 0.26], T2 = 0.17 [0.03, 0.30]), and homeostasis model assessment for ß-cell function (T1 = 0.20 [0.05, 0.34], T2 = 0.20 [0.04, 0.36]), but not with GDM (T1 = 0.95 [0.63, 1.40], T2 = 1.11 [0.74, 1.67]). CONCLUSIONS: Elevated maternal HCC was associated with abnormal insulin homeostasis in pregnancy. Dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, as reflected by high HCC, may also contribute to insulin resistance syndrome in pregnancy.

Investigation of cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between work-related burnout and hair cortisol: The Regensburg Burnout Project.

BACKGROUND: Burnout is characterized by feelings of exhaustion, depersonalization as well as reduced personal accomplishment and is linked to various negative health effects. Previous studies on biological correlates of burnout have focused on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. However, especially studies on hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) were often based on cross-sectional data and yielded inconsistent results, probably due to the heterogeneity of the selected samples. Accordingly, the aim of the present study was to investigate cross-sectional as well as longitudinal associations between burnout and HCC within a sample consisting of a strictly specified group of individuals suffering from burnout (BO group) and a healthy comparison group (HC group). METHODS: After a multi-stage recruitment procedure based on burnout symptoms and pathogenesis, eligible subjects (out of an initial sample of 1022 volunteers) were assigned either to a BO (n = 55) or HC group (n = 59), as described in detail in Bärtl et al. (2022). Burnout symptoms as well as HCC (1 cm hair samples) were measured repeatedly at two sampling time points t1 (n = 114) and t2 (n = 100) with an interval of M = 7.20 months (SD = 1.16) between assessments. RESULTS: In the total study sample, no cross-sectional associations between burnout and HCC were found either at t1 or at t2. When the analysis was restricted to the BO group, HCC was positively related to burnout symptomatology at t1 but not t2. In the longitudinal analysis, burnout symptoms at t1 were significant negative predictors of HCC at t2. However, the change in HCC from t1 to t2 was not associated with the change in burnout symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: In the present study, we investigated the association between HCC and burnout in a strictly defined sample of subjects suffering from burnout and healthy controls. Our findings mainly do not support our hypotheses. At least, the positive association between HCC and burnout symptoms only within the BO group supports the idea that HPA axis alterations in burnout might only become apparent once a certain threshold of burnout symptomatology has been exceeded, while the longitudinal data provide some empirical evidence for the potential long-term development of hypocortisolism in burnout. However, respective results remain relatively inconclusive.

Associations between psychological distress and hair cortisol during pregnancy and the early postpartum: A meta-analysis.

Pregnancy and the early postpartum signify a period of high stress. Perinatal stress can include psychological distress (PD), such as anxiety, depression, and stress, as well as neuroendocrine stress, indexed by activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the production of the hormone cortisol. Elevated PD and cortisol levels during the perinatal period can have long-term implications for the mother and child. Methodological advances have enabled the sampling of cortisol from hair, to provide a retrospective marker of HPA axis activity over several months. Despite knowing that maternal PD and HPA activity during the perinatal period independently impact health and development, research to date is unclear as to the association between maternal PD and hair cortisol. The present meta-analysis included 29 studies to assess the strength of the relation between maternal PD and hair cortisol levels during pregnancy and the early postpartum period. Several sample and methodological factors were assessed as moderators of this effect. Analyses were conducted using multilevel meta-analysis. Results of the multilevel meta-analysis indicated that the overall effect size between PD and HCC was small but not significant z = 0.039, 95% CI [- 0.001, 0.079]. Moderator analyses indicated that the strength of the association between PD and hair cortisol was moderated by pregnancy status (i.e., effects were stronger in pregnant compared to postpartum samples), timing of HCC and PD measurements (i.e., effects were larger when PD was measured before HCC) and geographic location (i.e., effects were larger in North American studies). The findings advance our understanding of the link between PD and HPA activity during the perinatal period, a time of critical impact to child development.

Ambient PM2.5 exposure and salivary cortisol output during pregnancy in a multi-ethnic urban sample.

OBJECTIVES: Evidence from murine research supports that fine particulate matter (PM2.5) may stimulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, leading to elevated circulating glucocorticoid levels. Epidemiologic research examining parallel associations document similar associations. We examined these associations among a diverse sample of pregnant individuals exposed to lower levels of ambient PM2.5. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Participants included pregnant individuals enrolled in the PRogramming of Intergenerational Stress Mechanisms (PRISM) pre-birth cohort. Daily residential PM2.5 exposure was estimated using a satellite-based spatial-temporal hybrid model. Maternal 3rd trimester salivary cortisol levels were used to calculate several features of the diurnal cortisol rhythm. We used multivariable linear regression to examine PM2.5 during the pre-conception period and during each trimester in relation to cortisol awakening rise (CAR), slope, and area under the curve relative to ground (AUCG). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The average PM2.5 exposure level across pregnancy was 8.13 µg/m3. PM2.5 in each exposure period was positively associated with AUCG, a measure of total cortisol output across the day. We also observed an inverse association between PM2.5 in the 3rd trimester and diurnal slope, indicating a steeper decline in cortisol throughout the day with increasing exposure. We did not detect strong associations between PM2.5 and slope for the other exposure periods or between PM2.5 and CAR for any exposure period. CONCLUSIONS: In this sample, PM2.5 exposure across the preconception and pregnancy periods was associated with increased cortisol output, even at levels below the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Annual Standard for PM2.5 of 12.0 µg/m3.

Diurnal Cortisol in Left-Behind Adolescents: Relations to Negative Family Expressiveness and Internalizing Problems.

Despite the accumulating evidence for increased risks for behavioral problems in left-behind adolescents in China, little research has explored their HPA axis functioning, which is hypothesized to play a central role in the association between early adversity and health. In the present study, we designed a longitudinal study to examine HPA axis function in left-behind adolescents and its mediating role in the association between family emotional expressiveness and internalizing problems. Participants were 81 adolescents (44 female; 37 male) aged 11-16 years. Salivary cortisol samples were collected six times a day for two consecutive days on regular school days. Negative family expressiveness (NFE) and internalizing problems were measured using self-report questionnaires. The results showed that NFE was negatively associated with diurnal cortisol, and diurnal cortisol was negatively associated with internalizing problems. Further analysis showed that diurnal cortisol secretion measured by AUC (area under the curve) mediated the association between NFE and internalizing problems. Our findings extended the existing literature about left-behind children via a psychoneuroendocrinological perspective, documenting the negative consequences of the family environment for youth health and development.

Increased cortisol levels caused by acute resistance physical exercise impair memory and learning ability.

Acute physical exercise works as an activator of the responses of the human organism to stress. This is based on the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, affecting physical, physiological and psychological levels. This study aimed to analyse the effects of a single bout of high-intensity resistance exercise on cognitive-behavioural responses: visuo-spatial path learning and memory, as well as physiological responses (salivary cortisol levels). Nineteen healthy male military-trained powerlifting subjects were tested in a within-subject design on two experimental days with an interval of 48 h. The stress and cognitive variables were measured by cortisol levels and Ruff-Light trail-learning test (RULIT) test scores, respectively. The results showed the immediate influence of acute exercise on cortisol, with significantly higher cortisol levels found in subjects after completion of the acute resistance exercise. In addition, this study found a significant deterioration of memory and learning ability after a dose of intense resistance exercise. In conclusion, the study highlights the relative effects of resistance exercise on cortisol and cognitive performance depending on the intensity and type of the exercise, the moment of measurement and the cerebral areas implicated.

Individual differences in environmental sensitivity at physiological and phenotypic level: Two sides of the same coin?

Young adolescents are hypothesized to differ in their environmental sensitivity, at both phenotypic (i.e., Sensory Processing Sensitivity [SPS]) and physiological (i.e., biological stress response) level. This is the first study that investigated whether individual differences in environmental sensitivity at physiological level could be predicted by individual differences at phenotypic level, as measured with the HSC scale. A total of 101 adolescents (Mage = 11.61, SDage = 0.64) participated in a standardized social stress task (i.e., Trier Social Stress Task-Modified version for children and adolescents (TSST-M)). From baseline to the end of recovery, eight cortisol samples were collected, as well as a continuous measure of Autonomic Nervous System activity. Adolescents reported on SPS and on perceived stress before, during, and after TSST-M. As a follow-up analysis, the quality of the environment, the possible overlap with Neuroticism, and several covariates were considered. Multilevel models were used to investigate within- and between-person differences in stress reactivity across different systems. Results indicate significant individual differences in heart rate, heart rate variability, skin conductance, cortisol, and perceived stress in response to the TSST-M. Only for perceived stress significant differences in SPS were observed, with more sensitive individuals perceiving more negative and less positive affect. For environmental quality and the interaction between SPS and Neuroticism results showed higher recovery rates of heart rate in high quality environments and stronger cortisol responses for adolescents scoring high on both SPS and Neuroticism. Potential explanations for these findings and implications for current theorizing on environmental sensitivity are discussed.

Hair cortisol levels in schizophrenia and metabolic syndrome.

AIM: Individuals with schizophrenia demonstrate higher rates of metabolic syndrome (MetS) than the general population. Hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) reflect longer-term cortisol secretion and can provide additional insights into the role of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis in schizophrenia and co-occurring MetS. METHODS: In a case-control study of 16 patients with schizophrenia (11 first episode psychosis [FEP] and 5 chronic) and 21 controls hair samples, representing a 3-month retrospective window of cortisol, were collected and analysed utilizing liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. We investigated whether schizophrenia and MetS co-occurrence were associated with HCC utilizing multivariate regression models. We also explored the longitudinal trajectory of HCC in FEP patients by conducting a mixed models analysis. RESULTS: At baseline HCC were significantly lower (Cohen's d = 0.88) in patients with schizophrenia than in controls (p = .014). HCC increased from baseline to month-12 in FEP patients compared to controls, demonstrating a trend towards significance (p = .097). MetS was not associated with HCC at baseline, but HCC increased significantly from baseline to month-12 in relation to MetS (p = .037). CONCLUSIONS: In a subgroup of schizophrenia patients, psychosis may be associated with a blunted HPA axis with lower long-term cortisol output. MetS was associated with an increase in HCC and elevated cortisol levels observed in schizophrenia may be related to increased rates of MetS in schizophrenia patients.

Cross-sectional relation of long-term glucocorticoids in hair with anthropometric measurements and their possible determinants: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Long-term glucocorticoids (HairGC) measured in scalp hair have been associated with body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), and waist-hip-ratio (WHR) in several cross-sectional studies. We aimed to investigate the magnitude, strength, and clinical relevance of these relations across all ages. METHODS: We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis (PROSPERO registration CRD42020205187) searching for articles relating HairGC to measures of obesity. Main outcomes were bivariate correlation coefficients and unadjusted simple linear regression coefficients relating hair cortisol (HairF) and hair cortisone (HairE) to BMI, WC, and WHR. RESULTS: We included k = 146 cohorts (n = 34,342 individuals). HairGC were positively related to all anthropometric measurements. The strongest correlation and largest effect size were seen for HairE-WC: pooled correlation 0.18 (95%CI 0.11-0.24; k = 7; n = 3,158; I2  = 45.7%) and pooled regression coefficient 11.0 cm increase in WC per point increase in 10-log-transformed HairE (pg/mg) on liquid-chromatography-(tandem) mass spectrometry (LC-MS) (95%CI 10.1-11.9 cm; k = 6; n = 3,102). Pooled correlation for HairF-BMI was 0.10 (95%CI 0.08-0.13; k = 122; n = 26,527; I2  = 51.2%) and pooled regression coefficient 0.049 kg/m2 per point increase in 10-log-transformed HairF (pg/mg) on LC-MS (95%CI 0.045-0.054 kg/m2 ; k = 26; n = 11,635). DISCUSSION: There is a consistent positive association between HairGC and BMI, WC, and WHR, most prominently and clinically relevant for HairE-WC. These findings overall suggest an altered setpoint of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis with increasing central adiposity.

Elevated levels of hair cortisol concentrations in professional dementia caregivers.

Providing care for people with dementia can be a highly stressful profession. Hair Cortisol Concentration (HCC) levels have been used as a biological marker for HPA axis activity to demonstrate that informal caregivers of people with dementia could be vulnerable to chronic stress. The current study aimed to progress the findings of research conducted with informal caregivers and is the first study to assess HCC as a biological indicator of stress in professional carers of people with dementia. HCC levels were compared between 32 professional dementia caregivers (30 females with a mean age of 45.83 and 2 males with a mean age of 24.50), 45 employees working in higher education settings (42 females with a mean age of 38.66 and 3 males with a mean age of 31.89) and 88 undergraduate students (67 females with a mean age of 24.04 and 21 males with a mean age of 23.91). Analysis of HCC was used to assess HPA axis activity over 1 month. A one-way ANCOVA, with age and gender being included as covariates, revealed that higher levels of HCC were observed in professional dementia carers than people who worked within higher education settings and undergraduate students. The results indicated that professional dementia caregivers may experience stress to the extent of activating biological stress responses at a greater frequency in comparison to people who work in higher education and undergraduate students. However, no significant differences were observed in the perceived stress levels reported across dementia caregivers, professionals working in higher education, and undergraduate students. These findings highlight the requirement to ascertain the extent to which work-related tasks or other factors, specific to the profession of caring for people with dementia, could elicit heightened HPA stress reactivity.