CARD11 regulates the thymic Treg development in an NF-κB-independent manner.

Introduction: CARD11 is a lymphoid lineage-specific scaffold protein regulating the NF-κB activation downstream of the antigen receptor signal pathway. Defective CARD11 function results in abnormal development and differentiation of lymphocytes, especially thymic regulatory T cells (Treg). Method: In this study, we used patients' samples together with transgenic mouse models carrying pathogenic CARD11 mutations from patients to explore their effects on Treg development. Immunoblotting and a GFP receptor assay were used to evaluate the activation effect of CARD11 mutants on NF-κB signaling. Then the suppressive function of Tregs carrying distinct CARD11 mutations was measured by in vitro suppression assay. Finally, we applied the retroviral transduced bone marrow chimeras to rescue the Treg development in an NF-κB independent manner. Results and discuss: We found CARD11 mutations causing hyper-activated NF-κB signals also gave rise to compromised Treg development in the thymus, similar to the phenotype in Card11 deficient mice. This observation challenges the previous view that CARD11 regulates Treg lineage dependent on the NF-kB activation. Mechanistic investigations reveal that the noncanonical function CARD11, which negatively regulates the AKT/ FOXO1 signal pathway, is responsible for regulating Treg generation. Moreover, primary immunodeficiency patients carrying CARD11 mutation, which autonomously activates NF-κB, also represented the reduced Treg population in their peripheral blood. Our results propose a new regulatory function of CARD11 and illuminate an NF-κB independent pathway for thymic Treg lineage commitment.

Impaired Response to Polysaccharide Vaccine in Selective IgE Deficiency.

PURPOSE: Immunoglobulin E deficiency (IgED) (defined as IgE < 2 IU/mL) is enriched in patients with primary antibody deficiency (PAD). We hypothesized that selective IgED (sIgED) is a more sensitive predictor of the development of PAD than declining IgG, as IgE production typically requires two class switch recombination (CSR) events in contrast to IgG. Thus, the inability of patients with sIgED to mount an appropriate antibody response to a T-cell independent antigen or evidence of aberrant induction of ɛ germ line (ɛGL) or IgE heavy chain (IgEHC) transcripts in vitro would support the concept that sIgED is a biomarker for emerging PAD. METHODS: We compared pre- and post-polysaccharide vaccination titers in healthy patients with sIgED without a history of recurrent infections or autoimmunity (n = 20) and in healthy controls (HCs) (n = 17). Subsequently, we assessed in vitro induction of εGL and IgEHC transcripts in patients with sIgED and HC (n = 6) in response to IL-4 + CD40L stimulation. RESULTS: Thirty percent of patients with sIgED did not have a robust vaccine response compared to 0% of HCs (p = 0.017). Individuals with sIgED with an abnormal vaccine response demonstrated persistent germline mRNA expression in their B-cells at day 5, with lower levels of IgEHC, compared to both HCs and sIgED participants with a normal vaccine response. CONCLUSION: Patients with sIgED are more likely to have abnormal antibody responses to a T cell-independent antigen and may have dysregulated CSR machinery. Following individuals with sIgED longitudinally may be beneficial in the early identification of PAD.

Reduced G protein signaling despite impaired internalization and ß-arrestin recruitment in patients carrying a CXCR4Leu317fsX3 mutation causing WHIM syndrome.

WHIM syndrome is an inherited immune disorder caused by an autosomal dominant heterozygous mutation in CXCR4. The disease is characterized by neutropenia/leukopenia (secondary to retention of mature neutrophils in bone marrow), recurrent bacterial infections, treatment-refractory warts, and hypogammaglobulinemia. All mutations reported in WHIM patients lead to the truncations in the C-terminal domain of CXCR4, R334X being the most frequent. This defect prevents receptor internalization and enhances both calcium mobilization and ERK phosphorylation, resulting in increased chemotaxis in response to the unique ligand CXCL12. Here, we describe 3 patients presenting neutropenia and myelokathexis, but normal lymphocyte count and immunoglobulin levels, carrying what we believe to be a novel Leu317fsX3 mutation in CXCR4, leading to a complete truncation of its intracellular tail. The analysis of the L317fsX3 mutation in cells derived from patients and in vitro cellular models reveals unique signaling features in comparison with R334X mutation. The L317fsX3 mutation impairs CXCR4 downregulation and ß-arrestin recruitment in response to CXCL12 and reduces other signaling events - including ERK1/2 phosphorylation, calcium mobilization, and chemotaxis - all processes that are typically enhanced in cells carrying the R334X mutation. Our findings suggest that, overall, the L317fsX3 mutation may be causative of a form of WHIM syndrome not associated with an augmented CXCR4 response to CXCL12.

SARS-CoV-2-Specific and Functional Cytotoxic CD8 Cells in Primary Antibody Deficiency: Natural Infection and Response to Vaccine.

PURPOSE: CD8 cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) play a critical role in the clearance of virally infected cells. SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8 T cells and functional CTLs in natural infections and following COVID-19 vaccine in primary antibody deficiency (PAD) have not been reported. In this study, we evaluated T cell response following COVID-19 or COVID-19 mRNA vaccination in patients with PADs by assessing SARS-CoV-2 tetramer-positive CD8 T cells and functional CTLs. METHODS: SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8 and functional CTLs were examined in a patient with X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) and a patient with common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) following COVID-19 infection, and in 5 patients with CVID and 5 healthy controls 1 month following 2nd dose of COVID-19 mRNA vaccine (Pfizer-BioNTech). Cells were stained with SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-specific tetramers, and for functional CTLs (CD8+ CD107a+ granzyme B+ perforin+), with monoclonal antibodies and isotype controls and analyzed by flow cytometry. RESULTS: SARS-CoV-2-specific tetramer + CD8 T cells and functional CTLs in the patient with XLA following COVID-19 infection were higher, as compared to healthy control subject following COVID-19 infection. On the other hand, SARS-CoV2-tetramer + CD8 T cells and functional CTLs were lower in CVID patient following COVID19 infection as compared to healthy control following COVID-19 infection. SARS-CoV2-tetramer + CD8 T cells and functional CTLs were significantly lower in SARS-CoV2-naive CVID patients (n = 10) following vaccination when compared to SARS-CoV-2-naive healthy vaccinated controls (n = 10). CONCLUSIONS: CVID is associated with reduced SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8 T cells and functional CTLs in both natural SARS-CoV-2 infection and in response to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine, whereas natural infection in XLA is associated with a robust SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8 and functional CTL responses.

Immunogenicity of the mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccine in adult patients with inborn errors of immunity.

BACKGROUND: Patients with inborn errors of immunity (IEI) are at increased risk of severe coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). Effective vaccination against COVID-19 is therefore of great importance in this group, but little is known about the immunogenicity of COVID-19 vaccines in these patients. OBJECTIVES: We sought to study humoral and cellular immune responses after mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccination in adult patients with IEI. METHODS: In a prospective, controlled, multicenter study, 505 patients with IEI (common variable immunodeficiency [CVID], isolated or undefined antibody deficiencies, X-linked agammaglobulinemia, combined B- and T-cell immunodeficiency, phagocyte defects) and 192 controls were included. All participants received 2 doses of the mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccine. Levels of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2-specific binding antibodies, neutralizing antibodies, and T-cell responses were assessed at baseline, 28 days after first vaccination, and 28 days after second vaccination. RESULTS: Seroconversion rates in patients with clinically mild antibody deficiencies and phagocyte defects were similar to those in healthy controls, but seroconversion rates in patients with more severe IEI, such as CVID and combined B- and T-cell immunodeficiency, were lower. Binding antibody titers correlated well to the presence of neutralizing antibodies. T-cell responses were comparable to those in controls in all IEI cohorts, with the exception of patients with CVID. The presence of noninfectious complications and the use of immunosuppressive drugs in patients with CVID were negatively correlated with the antibody response. CONCLUSIONS: COVID-19 vaccination with mRNA-1273 was immunogenic in mild antibody deficiencies and phagocyte defects and in most patients with combined B- and T-cell immunodeficiency and CVID. Lowest response was detected in patients with X-linked agammaglobulinemia and in patients with CVID with noninfectious complications. The assessment of longevity of immune responses in these vulnerable patient groups will guide decision making for additional vaccinations.

Activated Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase δ Syndrome: a Large Pediatric Cohort from a Single Center in China.

PURPOSE: Activated phosphoinositide 3-kinase δ syndrome (APDS) is a primary immunodeficiency first described in 2013, which is caused by gain-of-function mutations in PIK3CD or PIK3R1, and characterized by recurrent respiratory tract infections, lymphoproliferation, herpesvirus infection, autoimmunity, and enteropathy. We sought to review the clinical phenotypes, immunological characteristics, treatment, and prognosis of APDS in a large genetically defined Chinese pediatric cohort. METHODS: Clinical records, radiology examinations, and laboratory investigations of 40 APDS patients were reviewed. Patients were contacted via phone call to follow up their current situation. RESULTS: Sinopulmonary infections and lymphoproliferation were the most common complications in this cohort. Three (10.3%) and five (12.5%) patients suffered localized BCG-induced granulomatous inflammation and tuberculosis infection, respectively. Twenty-seven patients (67.5%) were affected by autoimmunity, while malignancy (7.5%) was relatively rare to be seen. Most patients in our cohort took a combined treatment of anti-infection prophylaxis, immunoglobulin replacement, and immunosuppressive therapy such as glucocorticoid or rapamycin administration. Twelve patients underwent hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) and had a satisfying prognosis. CONCLUSION: Clinical spectrum of APDS is heterogeneous. This cohort's high incidence of localized BCG-induced granulomatous inflammation and tuberculosis indicates Mycobacterial susceptibility in APDS patients. Rapamycin is effective in improving lymphoproliferation and cytopenia. HSCT is an option for those who have severe complications and poor response to other treatments.

Antigen-Specific CD4+ T-Cell Activation in Primary Antibody Deficiency After BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 Vaccination.

Previous studies on immune responses following COVID-19 vaccination in patients with common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) were inconclusive with respect to the ability of the patients to produce vaccine-specific IgG antibodies, while patients with milder forms of primary antibody deficiency such as immunoglobulin isotype deficiency or selective antibody deficiency have not been studied at all. In this study we examined antigen-specific activation of CXCR5-positive and CXCR5-negative CD4+ memory cells and also isotype-specific and functional antibody responses in patients with CVID as compared to other milder forms of primary antibody deficiency and healthy controls six weeks after the second dose of BNT162b2 vaccine against SARS-CoV-2. Expression of the activation markers CD25 and CD134 was examined by multi-color flow cytometry on CD4+ T cell subsets stimulated with SARS-CoV-2 spike peptides, while in parallel IgG and IgA antibodies and surrogate virus neutralization antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 spike protein were measured by ELISA. The results show that in CVID and patients with other milder forms of antibody deficiency normal IgG responses (titers of spike protein-specific IgG three times the detection limit or more) were associated with intact vaccine-specific activation of CXCR5-negative CD4+ memory T cells, despite defective activation of circulating T follicular helper cells. In contrast, CVID IgG nonresponders showed defective vaccine-specific and superantigen-induced activation of both CD4+T cell subsets. In conclusion, impaired TCR-mediated activation of CXCR5-negative CD4+ memory T cells following stimulation with vaccine antigen or superantigen identifies patients with primary antibody deficiency and impaired IgG responses after BNT162b2 vaccination.

Primary Immune Deficiency: Patients' Preferences for Replacement Immunoglobulin Therapy.

Purpose: Immunoglobulin (Ig) replacement therapy is an important life-saving treatment modality for patients with primary antibody immune deficiency disorders (PAD). IVIG and SCIg are suitable alternatives to treat patients with PAD but vary in key ways. Existing evidence on patient preferences for Ig treatments given the complexities associated with IVIG and SCIg treatment is limited and fails to account for variations in preferences across patients. For this reason, we sought to evaluate PAD patient preferences for features of IVIG and SCIg across different patient characteristics. Materials and Methods: 119 PAD patients completed a discrete-choice experiment (DCE) survey. The DCE asked respondents to make choices between carefully constructed treatment alternatives described in terms of generic treatment features. Choices from the DCE were analyzed to determine the relative influence of attribute changes on treatment preferences. We used subgroup analysis to evaluate systematic variations in preferences by patients' age, gender, time since diagnosis, and treatment experience. Results: Patients were primarily concerned about the duration of treatment side effects, but preferences were heterogeneous. This was particularly true around administration features. Time since diagnosis was associated with an increase in patients' concerns with the number of needles required per infusion. Also, patients appear to prefer the kind of therapy they are currently using which could be the result of properly aligned patient preferences or evidence of patient adaptive behavior. Conclusions: Heterogeneity in preferences for Ig replacement treatments suggests that a formal shared decision making process could have an important role in improving patient care.

Case Series: Convalescent Plasma Therapy for Patients with COVID-19 and Primary Antibody Deficiency.

Patients with primary antibody deficiency are at risk for severe and in many cases for prolonged COVID-19. Convalescent plasma treatment of immunocompromised individuals could be an option especially in countries with limited access to monoclonal antibody therapies. While studies in immunocompetent COVID19 patients have demonstrated only a limited benefit, evidence for the safety, timing, and effectiveness of this treatment in antibody-deficient patients is lacking. Here, we describe 16 cases with primary antibody deficiency treated with convalescent plasma in four medical centers. In our cohort, treatment was associated with a reduction in viral load and improvement of clinical symptoms, even when applied over a week after onset of infection. There were no relevant side effects besides a short-term fever reaction in one patient. Longitudinal full-genome sequencing revealed the emergence of mutations in the viral genome, potentially conferring an antibody escape in one patient with persistent viral RNA shedding upon plasma treatment. However, he resolved the infection after a second course of plasma treatment. Thus, our data suggest a therapeutic benefit of convalescent plasma treatment in patients with primary antibody deficiency even months after infection. While it appears to be safe, PCR follow-up for SARS-CoV-2 is advisable and early re-treatment might be considered in patients with persistent viral shedding.

Immunogenicity and tolerability of COVID-19 messenger RNA vaccines in primary immunodeficiency patients with functional B-cell defects.

BACKGROUND: Data on the safety and efficacy of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccination in people with a range of primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) are lacking because these patients were excluded from COVID-19 vaccine trials. This information may help in clinical management of this vulnerable patient group. OBJECTIVE: We assessed humoral and T-cell immune responses after 2 doses of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines in patients with PID and functional B-cell defects. METHODS: A double-center retrospective review was performed of patients with PID who completed COVID-19 mRNA vaccination and who had humoral responses assessed through SARS-CoV-2 spike protein receptor binding domain (RBD) IgG antibody levels with reflex assessment of the antibody to block RBD binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2; hereafter referred to as ACE2 receptor blocking activity, as a surrogate test for neutralization) and T-cell response evaluated by an IFN-γ release assay. Immunization reactogenicity was also reviewed. RESULTS: A total of 33 patients with humoral defect were evaluated; 69.6% received BNT162b2 vaccine (Pfizer-BioNTech) and 30.3% received mRNA-1273 (Moderna). The mRNA vaccines were generally well tolerated without severe reactions. The IFN-γ release assay result was positive in 24 (77.4%) of 31 patients. Sixteen of 33 subjects had detectable RBD-specific IgG responses, but only 2 of these 16 subjects had an ACE2 receptor blocking activity level of ≥50%. CONCLUSION: Vaccination of this cohort of patients with PID with COVID-19 mRNA vaccines was safe, and cellular immunity was stimulated in most subjects. However, antibody responses to the spike protein RBD were less consistent, and, when detected, were not effective at ACE2 blocking.

Infection rates and tolerability of three different immunoglobulin administration modalities in patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases.

Aim: This post hoc analysis evaluated the efficacy and overall tolerability of immunoglobulin (Ig) treatment modalities (intravenous Ig [iv.Ig], subcutaneous Ig [sc.Ig] and facilitated sc.Ig [fsc.Ig]). Materials & methods: A total of 30 participants with primary immunodeficiency diseases aged ≥2 years sequentially received iv.Ig, sc.Ig and fsc.Ig during consecutive clinical studies. Results: For iv.Ig, sc.Ig and fsc.Ig, rates of validated acute serious bacterial infections/participant-year (0, 0.09 and 0.04, respectively) and all infections/participant year (4.17, 3.68 and 2.42, respectively) were similarly low; rates of systemic and local causally related adverse events/participant-year were 5.60, 1.93 and 0.88, respectively and 0.13, 0.92 and 1.57, respectively. Conclusion: fsc.Ig provided similar efficacy to iv.Ig and sc.Ig. Clinical Trial registration: NCT00546871, NCT00814320, NCT01175213 (ClinicalTrials.gov).

The ERM protein moesin regulates natural killer cell homeostasis in vivo.

Moesin is a member of the ezrin-radixin-moesin (ERM) family of proteins that link plasma membrane proteins with actin filaments in the cell cortex. Hemizygous mutations in the X-linked moesin gene are associated with primary immunodeficiency with T and B cell lymphopenia, which also affects natural killer (NK) cells in most cases. We previously showed that moesin deficiency in mice substantially affects lymphocyte homeostasis, but its impact on NK cells remains unexplored. Here, we found that in moesin-deficient mice, NK cells were decreased in the peripheral blood and bone marrow but increased in the spleen. Analysis of female heterozygous mice showed a selective advantage for moesin-expressing NK cells in the blood. Moesin-deficient NK cells exhibited increased cell death and impaired signaling in response to IL-15, suggesting that moesin regulates NK cell survival through IL-15-mediated signaling. Our findings thus identify moesin as an NK cell homeostasis regulator in vivo.

Errores innatos de la inmunidad: ¿Qué debe saber y cuándo debe sospechar el otorrinolaringólogo? / Inborn errors of immunity: What should the otolaryngologist know, and when to suspect them?

Introducción: Los errores innatos de la inmunidad, previamente conocidos como inmunodeficiencias primarias, son un grupo heterogéneo de patologías cuya presentación clínica incluye infecciones recurrentes, persistentes o refractarias al tratamiento en el campo de la otorrinolaringología. Materiales y métodos: Se realizó una revisión narrativa de la literatura a partir de la búsqueda de documentos en PUBMED y EMBASE. Discusión y conclusiones: Los pacientes con sospecha de error innato de la inmunidad requieren un diagnóstico temprano con el fin de disminuir las complicaciones a largo plazo, por lo que la valoración y el abordaje inicial desempeñan un papel fundamental en el reconocimiento de estas enfermedades.

Introduction: Inborn errors of immunity, previously known as primary immunodeficiencies, are a heterogeneous group of pathologies whose clinical presentation includes recurrent, persistent and/or refractory infections to treatment in otorhinolaryngology. Materials and methods: Narrative review of the literature was carried out from the search for articles in PUBMED and EMBASE. Discussion and conclusions: Patients with suspected inborn error of immunity require an early diagnosis to reduce long-term complications; the initial assessment and approach play a fundamental role in the recognition of these diseases

Biallelic mutations in calcium release activated channel regulator 2A (CRACR2A) cause a primary immunodeficiency disorder.

CRAC channel regulator 2 A (CRACR2A) is a large Rab GTPase that is expressed abundantly in T cells and acts as a signal transmitter between T cell receptor stimulation and activation of the Ca2+-NFAT and JNK-AP1 pathways. CRACR2A has been linked to human diseases in numerous genome-wide association studies, however, to date no patient with damaging variants in CRACR2A has been identified. In this study, we describe a patient harboring biallelic variants in CRACR2A [paternal allele c.834 gaG> gaT (p.E278D) and maternal alelle c.430 Aga > Gga (p.R144G) c.898 Gag> Tag (p.E300*)], the gene encoding CRACR2A. The 33-year-old patient of East-Asian origin exhibited late onset combined immunodeficiency characterised by recurrent chest infections, panhypogammaglobulinemia and CD4+ T cell lymphopenia. In vitro exposure of patient B cells to a T-dependent stimulus resulted in normal generation of antibody-secreting cells, however the patient's T cells showed pronounced reduction in CRACR2A protein levels and reduced proximal TCR signaling, including dampened SOCE and reduced JNK phosphorylation, that contributed to a defect in proliferation and cytokine production. Expression of individual allelic mutants in CRACR2A-deleted T cells showed that the CRACR2AE278D mutant did not affect JNK phosphorylation, but impaired SOCE which resulted in reduced cytokine production. The truncated double mutant CRACR2AR144G/E300* showed a pronounced defect in JNK phosphorylation as well as SOCE and strong impairment in cytokine production. Thus, we have identified variants in CRACR2A that led to late-stage combined immunodeficiency characterized by loss of function in T cells.

Endocrinopathies in Inborn Errors of Immunity.

Inborn errors of immunity (IEI), caused by hereditary or genetic defects, are a group of more than 400 disorders, in which the immune system, including lymphocytes, neutrophils, macrophages, and complements, does not function properly. The endocrine system is frequently affected by IEI as an associated clinical feature and a complex network of glands which regulate many important body functions, including growth, reproduction, homeostasis, and energy regulation. Most endocrine disorders associated with IEI are hypofunction which would be treated with supplementation therapy, and early diagnosis and appropriate management are essential for favorable long-term outcomes in patients with IEI. In this review, we aimed to comprehensively summarize and discuss the current understanding on the clinical features and the pathophysiology of endocrine disorders in IEI. This review is composed with three parts. First, we discuss the two major pathophysiology of endocrinopathy in IEI, autoimmune response and direct effects of the responsible genes. Next, the details of each endocrinopathy, such as growth failure, hypothyroidism, hypoparathyroidism, adrenal insufficiency, diabetes mellitus (DM) are specified. We also illustrated potential endocrinopathy due to hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, including hypogonadism and adrenal insufficiency due to glucocorticoid therapy.

A Novel Germline Heterozygous BCL11B Variant Causing Severe Atopic Disease and Immune Dysregulation.

B-cell lymphoma/leukemia 11B (BCL11B) is a C2H2 zinc finger transcription factor that is critically important for regulating the development and function of a variety of systems including the central nervous system, the skin, and the immune system. Germline heterozygous variants are associated with a spectrum of clinical disorders, including severe combined immunodeficiency as well as neurological, craniofacial, and dermal defects. Of these individuals, ~50% present with severe allergic disease. Here, we report the detailed clinical and laboratory workup of one of the most severe BCL11B-dependent atopic cases to date. Leveraging a zebrafish model, we were able to confirm a strong T-cell defect in the patient. Based on these data, we classify germline BCL11B-dependent atopic disease as a novel primary atopic disorder.

Understanding neutropenia secondary to intrinsic or iatrogenic immune dysregulation.

As a key member of the innate and adaptive immune response, neutrophils provide insights into the hematopoietic and inflammatory manifestations of inborn errors of immunity (IEI) and the consequences of immunotherapy. The facile recognition of IEI presenting with neutropenia provides an avenue for hematologists to facilitate early diagnosis and expedite biologically rationale care. Moreover, enhancing the understanding of the molecular mechanisms driving neutropenia in IEI-decreased bone marrow reserves, diminished egress from the bone marrow, and decreased survival-offers an opportunity to further dissect the pathophysiology driving neutropenia secondary to iatrogenic immune dysregulation, eg, immune checkpoint inhibitors and chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy.

Clinical and Immunological Features of Human BCL10 Deficiency.

The CARD-BCL10-MALT1 (CBM) complex is critical for the proper assembly of human immune responses. The clinical and immunological consequences of deficiencies in some of its components such as CARD9, CARD11, and MALT1 have been elucidated in detail. However, the scarcity of BCL10 deficient patients has prevented gaining detailed knowledge about this genetic disease. Only two patients with BCL10 deficiency have been reported to date. Here we provide an in-depth description of an additional patient with autosomal recessive complete BCL10 deficiency caused by a nonsense mutation that leads to a loss of expression (K63X). Using mass cytometry coupled with unsupervised clustering and machine learning computational methods, we obtained a thorough characterization of the consequences of BCL10 deficiency in different populations of leukocytes. We showed that in addition to the near absence of memory B and T cells previously reported, this patient displays a reduction in NK, γδT, Tregs, and TFH cells. The patient had recurrent respiratory infections since early childhood, and showed a family history of lethal severe infectious diseases. Fortunately, hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation (HSCT) cured her. Overall, this report highlights the importance of early genetic diagnosis for the management of BCL10 deficient patients and HSCT as the recommended treatment to cure this disease.

High Prevalence of Genital Human Papillomavirus Infection in Patients With Primary Immunodeficiencies.

Background: Genital human papillomavirus (HPV)-infections are common in the general population and are responsible for relevant numbers of epithelial malignancies. Much data on the HPV-prevalence is available for secondary immunodeficiencies, especially for patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infection. Little is known about the genital HPV-prevalence in patients with primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs). Methods: We performed a cross-sectional study of patients with PIDs and took genital swabs from male and female patients, which were analyzed with polymerase chain reaction for the presence of HPV-DNA. Clinical and laboratory data was collected to identify risk factors. Results: 28 PID patients were included in this study. 10 of 28 (35.7%) had HPV-DNA in their genital swabs. 6 patients had high-risk HPV-types (21.4%). Most patients had asymptomatic HPV-infections, as genital warts were rare (2 of 28 patients) and HPV-associated malignancy was absent. Differences in the HPV-positivity regarding clinical PID-diagnosis, duration of PID, age, sex, immunosuppression, immunoglobulin replacement, or circumcision in males were not present. HPV-positive PID patients had higher numbers of T cells (CD3+), of cytotoxic T cells (CD3+/CD8+), of transitional B cells (CD19+/CD38++/CD10+/IgD+), and of plasmablasts (CD19+/CD38+/CD27++/IgD-) compared to HPV-negative. Conclusion: PID patients exhibit a high rate of genital HPV-infections with a high rate of high-risk HPV-types. Regular screening for symptomatic genital HPV-infection and HPV-associated malignancy in PID patients seems recommendable.

Safety and efficacy of the mRNA BNT162b2 vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 in five groups of immunocompromised patients and healthy controls in a prospective open-label clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Patients with immunocompromised disorders have mainly been excluded from clinical trials of vaccination against COVID-19. Thus, the aim of this prospective clinical trial was to investigate safety and efficacy of BNT162b2 mRNA vaccination in five selected groups of immunocompromised patients and healthy controls. METHODS: 539 study subjects (449 patients and 90 controls) were included. The patients had either primary (n=90), or secondary immunodeficiency disorders due to human immunodeficiency virus infection (n=90), allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation/CAR T cell therapy (n=90), solid organ transplantation (SOT) (n=89), or chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) (n=90). The primary endpoint was seroconversion rate two weeks after the second dose. The secondary endpoints were safety and documented SARS-CoV-2 infection. FINDINGS: Adverse events were generally mild, but one case of fatal suspected unexpected serious adverse reaction occurred. 72.2% of the immunocompromised patients seroconverted compared to 100% of the controls (p=0.004). Lowest seroconversion rates were found in the SOT (43.4%) and CLL (63.3%) patient groups with observed negative impact of treatment with mycophenolate mofetil and ibrutinib, respectively. INTERPRETATION: The results showed that the mRNA BNT162b2 vaccine was safe in immunocompromised patients. Rate of seroconversion was substantially lower than in healthy controls, with a wide range of rates and antibody titres among predefined patient groups and subgroups. This clinical trial highlights the need for additional vaccine doses in certain immunocompromised patient groups to improve immunity. FUNDING: Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Council, Nordstjernan AB, Region Stockholm, Karolinska Institutet, and organizations for PID/CLL-patients in Sweden.