New Bird Sexing Strategy Developed in the Order Psittaciformes Involves Multiple Markers to Avoid Sex Misidentification: Debunked Myth of the Universal DNA Marker.

Sexing of birds is indispensable for scientific, breeding and conservation programs but is difficult in many species and is particularly problematic in the case of nestlings showing no sexual dimorphism. Most useful and efficient methods of sex determination are based on unique features of the Z and W sex chromosomes detected via PCR to distinguish males (ZZ) and females (ZW). During the last twenty-five years researchers searched for the universal marker capable of sexing a maximally wide spectrum of species in a single PCR assay. We screened the phylogenetically representative set of 135 Psittaciformes species including 59 species sexed for the first time. Two known (P2P8, CHD1iA) PCR markers and four additional W/Z polymorphisms (CHD1iE, CHD1i16, CHD1i9 and NIPBLi16) located within the Chromo Helicase DNA binding CHD1 or the Nipped-B homolog NIPBL genes were applied. We present the electrophoretic patterns obtained for the PCR products of the analyzed markers including most typical and atypical patterns allowing sex determination, as well as those obtained when the given marker failed in sexing. Technical aspects of molecular sex determination are discussed: the optimization of amplification conditions, direct PCR and potential misinterpretations. A truly universal marker has not been found, and therefore, we propose a sexing strategy based on multiple CHD1i16, NIPBLi16, CHD1i9 and CHD1iE markers. This new strategy confirms the sex of a given bird with at least two markers detecting independent Z/W polymorphisms, reduces the number of necessary PCR reactions and minimizes the risk of sex misidentification.

Behavior of male and female eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) in an artificial environment

The eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) is a species of parrot native to the Solomon Islands, Sumba, New Guinea and nearby islands, northeastern Australia, and the Moluccan Islands. The wide range of behaviors emphasizes the existence of knowledge of only a mere fraction of the significant behavioral parameters of these birds. The objective of this study is to identify the behavior of the eclectus parrot kept in captivity and to check the frequency of these birds in certain places of the nursery, comparing the results to other studies about parrots and the behavior in nature. This is a study about the behavior of a bird with a very pronounced sexual dimorphism, where the males have a predominantly green color, and the females are mainly red-colored. In the wild, while the male perches on the outer branches of the trees, thefemale usually perches close to tree trunks. This location, together with her red and blue plumage, provides the ideal camouflage in the dark interior of the trees.

Feeding cluster preferences in four genera of Lories and Lorikeets (Loriinae) that should be considered in the diet of nectarivorous psittacine species in captivity.

Lories and lorikeets are popular birds in the pet bird trade, captured from the wild and exported worldwide. Their captive propagation has not been so successful for many species due to health issues, low breeding success and reduced longevity. As a result, uptake from the wild is currently the only way to meet the market's demand. Field studies on Asian species of loris and lorikeets are limited; therefore, dietary recommendations are based on the well-studied Australian species such as the rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglossus moluccanus). We aimed to provide an ad libitum diet to diverse Loriinae species at Jurong Bird Park (Singapore) which allowed for them to select between a low and moderate protein diet to compare their nutrient and energy intake with other Loriinae species. We measured the following variables: daily dry matter (DM) intake, nectar-to-fruit energy intake ratio (NF ratio), metabolisable energy (ME), protein and non-protein energy (NPE)-to-protein energy (PE) ratio intake (all by kg metabolic body weight MBW, kg0.75 ) for 36 pairs over a 1-month period. A Kruskal-Wallis test revealed every genus had significantly different intakes of DM, NF ratio, NPE-to-PE ratio, ME and protein than each other. Post hoc Mann-Whitney U tests confirmed that the majority of variables were ingested in different amounts for each genus except for NF ratio, NPE/PE ratio which Lorius spp. are not different to Charmosyna sp. or Trichoglossus spp. and protein intake of Eos spp. does not differ from Trichoglossus spp. Our conclusion is that no species should be used as a model for a species from another genus of Loriinae; future studies should be species-specific for each genus to increase captive propagation success.

Why human environments enhance animal capacities to use objects: Evidence from keas (Nestor notabilis) and apes (Gorilla gorilla, Pan paniscus, Pongo abelii, Pongo pygmaeus).

Formal training programs, which can be called education, enhance cognition in human and nonhuman animals alike. However, even informal exposure to human contact in human environments can enhance cognition. We review selected literature to compare animals' behavior with objects among keas and great apes, the taxa that best allow systematic comparison of the behavior of wild animals with that of those in human environments such as homes, zoos, and rehabilitation centers. In all cases, we find that animals in human environments do much more with objects. Following and expanding on the explanations of several previous authors, we propose that living in human environments and the opportunities to observe and manipulate human-made objects help to develop motor skills, embodied cognition, and the use of objects to extend cognition in the animals. Living in a human world also furnishes the animals with more time for such activities, in that the time needed for foraging for food is reduced, and furnishes opportunities for social learning, including emulation, an attempt to achieve the goals of a model, and program-level imitation, in which the imitator reproduces the organizational structure of goal-directed actions without necessarily copying all the details. All these factors let these animals learn about the affordances of many objects and make them better able to come up with solutions to physical problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Kea (Nestor notabilis) decide early when to wait in food exchange task.

The ability to forego an immediate reward in favor of a bigger or better one at a later point has been linked with advanced cognitive skills, such as impulse control and forward-planning, and can be assessed by the classic food exchange paradigm. While the ability to perform in such tasks has long been regarded as an exclusive trait of humans and some mammals, that is, primates and dogs, in recent years some bird species have been found to perform similarly as primates. Here we test 10 captive kea (Nestor notabilis), using a food exchange paradigm standardized in earlier experiments, but adding the use of a container to hold the initial item. The subjects reached waiting times of up to 160 s. They also showed significantly different results depending on the difference in the preference level for the presented food items, as well as clearly nonrandom waiting times, displaying forward-planning and economic evaluation of the situation at hand. As in most other species, results were markedly better when exchanging for quality as opposed to quantity. These results provide further evidence for temporal discounting in birds and fit in with the data gained on corvids and parrots in recent years. (PsycINFO Database Record

Psittacine cognition: Individual differences and sources of variation.

Both the number and breadth of avian cognition studies have expanded in the past three decades. Parrots have a long history as subjects in avian cognition research. This paper summarizes results from a number of parrot species tested on basic learning, and physical & social cognitive processes, with an emphasis on individual differences. Early psittacine studies were aimed at demonstrating a particular cognitive ability existed in a given species. Because of this proof of capacity focus, early studies typically included only a single individual or a dyad of parrots. Existing reviews of parrot cognition tend to focus on a particular cognitive component in a single species, or even a single individual. Despite the narrow focus, results from increasing sample sizes show intraspecific variation across a variety of cognitive assessments and parrot species. Intraspecific variability in performance on cognitive tasks highlights the need for establishing a cognitive normal range for a given species and process. To accomplish this, large numbers of individuals need to be tested and non-cognitive sources of variability need to be controlled. Once species typical cognitive normal ranges are established, cognitive comparisons can be made between parrot species and between parrots and other taxa.

Combinatory actions during object play in psittaciformes (Diopsittaca nobilis, Pionites melanocephala, Cacatua goffini) and corvids (Corvus corax, C. monedula, C. moneduloides).

The playful (i.e., not overtly functional) combination of objects is considered a potential ontogenetic and phylogenetic precursor of technical problem solving abilities, as it may lead to affordance learning and honing of mechanical skills. We compared such activities in 6 avian species: 3 psittaciforms (black-headed caiques, red-shouldered macaws, and Goffin cockatoos) and 3 corvids (New Caledonian crows, ravens, and jackdaws). Differences in the type and frequency of object combinations were consistent with species' ecology. Object caching was found predominately in common ravens, which frequently cache food. The most intrinsically structured object combinations were found in New Caledonian crows and Goffin cockatoos, which both stand out for their problem solving abilities in physical tasks. Object insertions prevailed in New Caledonian crows that naturally extract food using tools. Our results support the idea that playful manipulations of inedible objects are linked to physical cognition and problem-solving abilities.

Comparison of body temperature readings between an implantable microchip and a cloacal probe in lorikeets (Trichoglossus haematodus sp.).

Body temperature readings can be a useful diagnostic tool for identifying the presence of subclinical disease. Traditionally, rectal or cloacal thermometry has been used to obtain body temperatures. The use of implantable microchips to obtain these temperatures has been studied in a variety of animals, but not yet in avian species. Initially, timepoint one (T1), nine lorikeets were anesthetized via facemask induction with 5% isoflurane and maintained at 2-3% for microchip placement and body temperature data collection. Body temperature was measured at 0 and 2 min post-anesthetic induction both cloacally, using a Cardell veterinary monitor and also via implantable microchip, utilizing a universal scanner. On two more occasions, timepoints two and three (T2, T3), the same nine lorikeets were manually restrained to obtain body temperature readings both cloacally and via microchip, again at minutes 0 and 2. There was no statistical difference between body temperatures, for both methods, at T1. Microchip temperatures were statistically different than cloacal temperatures at T2 and T3. Body temperatures at T1, were statistically different from those obtained at T2 and T3 for both methods. Additional studies are warranted to verify the accuracy of microchip core body temperature readings in avian species.

Plasma butyrylcholinesterase concentrations in psittacine birds: reference values, factors of variation, and association with feather-damaging behavior.

Butyrylcholinesterase is a glycoprotein enzyme used in the diagnosis of toxicosis by cholinesterase-inhibitor agents like organophosphates and carbamates. In animals, butyrylcholinesterase concentrations have been shown to vary depending on numerous factors such as age, sex, diet, and season of sampling. To establish reference values of plasma butyrylcholinesterase concentrations in common psittacine species, plasma butyrylcholinesterase concentrations were measured in 1942 companion psittacine birds. The birds were classified by age, sex, season, health status, and the presence of feather-damaging behavior. A significant difference was observed among species, with eclectus parrots (Eclectus roratus) having the lowest and African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) having the highest reference values. Plasma butyrylcholinesterase concentrations varied by age, health status, and season but not by sex. Concentrations were significantly higher during autumn and spring than during winter and summer, and significantly lower in healthy birds than in sick birds. No significant association between butyrylcholinesterase concentrations and feather-damaging behavior could be established except in lovebirds (Agapornis species). Further research is needed to better understand the effect of nutritional and hormonal factors on butyrylcholinesterase concentrations in psittacine birds and its possible effect on bird cognition.

The diet of adult psittacids: veterinarian and ethological approaches.

Parrots species are kept as pets because of their colours, their vocal abilities, their longevity and also their behaviours. Nevertheless, many owners do not know how to feed their bird in a healthy way and sometimes veterinarians and ethologists are confronted to dramatic situations. Diet is a key factor to prevent and reduce health and psychogenic disorders. Imbalance can lead to physical, physiological and behavioural modifications that can weaken the owner-bird relationship, cause bird discomfort and sometimes threaten its survival. Psittacids are known for their complex cognitive and communicative abilities. They are social animals and need many interactions. Kept in captivity, they could suffer from boredom because of lack of stimulations and also because of lack of possibility to explore and to forage, which could represent up to 70% of their day time in the wild. Indeed, humans control every parameter in the environment of pet psittacids. They provide a highly digestible diet. In captivity, foraging is not mandatory, and the bird can get bored. Here, we present a review of the literature regarding the quality of the diet and health disorders on one hand and the interaction between foraging opportunities and psychogenic disorders in adult psittacids on the other hand.

Semen collection and artificial inseminationin cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus)--a potential model for psittacines.

STUDY: Since many psittacine species are endangered and also rare in captivity, the number of offspring produced from breeding is crucial. Many potential breeding birds in species conservation programs are force-paired, and the eggs of many clutches are frequently infertile. Furthermore, male infertility is a common problem. The use of artificial insemination may increase the number of fertile eggs. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In this study, 32 cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) were divided into two groups. In one group, the males were endoscopically sterilised. The males of the other group were used as semen donors. After collection using a novel massage technique, semen samples were examined microscopically to assess contamination and quality. Samples with medium to high sperm concentrations, medium to high motility and no contaminants were used for intracloacal artificial insemination of hens in the group with sterile males. RESULTS: In total, 74.2% of all attempts to collect semen were successful. Insemination resulted in fertilisation of 17 of 23 eggs (73.9%), which was slightly lower than the natural fertilisation rate (88.4%). No negative effects were observed on the oviposition interval of the inseminated hens throughout the entire study. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Easily applicable in veterinary practice, this study demonstrates that the use of artificial insemination may be a valuable tool to address reproductive failure of psittacines in breeding projects.

Pine as fast food: foraging ecology of an endangered cockatoo in a forestry landscape.

Pine plantations near Perth, Western Australia have provided an important food source for endangered Carnaby's Cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus latirostris) since the 1940s. Plans to harvest these plantations without re-planting will remove this food source by 2031 or earlier. To assess the impact of pine removal, we studied the ecological association between Carnaby's Cockatoos and pine using behavioural, nutritional, and phenological data. Pine plantations provided high densities of seed (158,025 seeds ha(-1)) over a large area (c. 15,000 ha). Carnaby's Cockatoos fed throughout these plantations and removed almost the entire annual crop of pine cones. Peak cockatoo abundance coincided with pine seed maturation. Pine seed had energy and protein contents equivalent to native food sources and, critically, is available in summer when breeding pairs have young offspring to feed. This strong and enduring ecological association clearly suggests that removing pine will have a significant impact on this endangered species unless restoration strategies, to establish alternative food sources, are implemented.

Visual artificial grammar learning: comparative research on humans, kea (Nestor notabilis) and pigeons (Columba livia).

Artificial grammar learning (AGL) provides a useful tool for exploring rule learning strategies linked to general purpose pattern perception. To be able to directly compare performance of humans with other species with different memory capacities, we developed an AGL task in the visual domain. Presenting entire visual patterns simultaneously instead of sequentially minimizes the amount of required working memory. This approach allowed us to evaluate performance levels of two bird species, kea (Nestor notabilis) and pigeons (Columba livia), in direct comparison to human participants. After being trained to discriminate between two types of visual patterns generated by rules at different levels of computational complexity and presented on a computer screen, birds and humans received further training with a series of novel stimuli that followed the same rules, but differed in various visual features from the training stimuli. Most avian and all human subjects continued to perform well above chance during this initial generalization phase, suggesting that they were able to generalize learned rules to novel stimuli. However, detailed testing with stimuli that violated the intended rules regarding the exact number of stimulus elements indicates that neither bird species was able to successfully acquire the intended pattern rule. Our data suggest that, in contrast to humans, these birds were unable to master a simple rule above the finite-state level, even with simultaneous item presentation and despite intensive training.

Psittacine incubation and pediatrics.

Psittacine pediatric medicine and surgery can only continue to be practiced by avian veterinarians if psittacine aviculture (the successful captive breeding of parrot species) is active and thriving. Although beautiful, intelligent parrots are popular as beloved pets and reside in zoo and private collections around the world, private psittacine aviculture is in a transition period recovering from difficult economic times. Many of the larger aviculturists have left and the rise of the small aviculturist has significantly changed the industry.

Positive reinforcement training facilitates the voluntary participation of laboratory macaws with veterinary procedures.

Psittacine birds are challenging laboratory subjects, as they are typically long-lived, very social, highly intelligent, and easily stressed. The benefits of positive reinforcement techniques in animal management have been well documented for mammalian species; however, there are few publications on such programs for birds. To demonstrate the practicality of positive reinforcement training of laboratory birds to cooperate with research procedures involving direct manipulation of individuals, 9 adult macaws (Ara species; 5 individuals and 2 pairs) were trained in 10-minute sessions, twice a day for 8 weeks. The trained behaviors were: target, stay, accept liquids from a syringe, step onto a perch, step onto a scale, allow pressing a syringe to the pectoral area (surrogate for an intramuscular injection), and step onto a towel. All individually housed birds reliably targeted, stayed, and accepted a syringe, and 4 of the 5 stepped onto a perch. One bird performed all of the behaviors. Paired birds learned advanced techniques significantly faster when trained by 2 trainers versus 1 trainer. All behaviors that were mastered during the initial phase of training were successfully transferred so that the birds would reliably perform for the husbandry staff. We conclude that positive reinforcement techniques provide an effective, practical way to train laboratory macaws in behaviors useful for veterinary practice and research. Positive reinforcement used to evoke voluntary participation in procedures will help reduce stress associated with capture and restraint and improve welfare for laboratory parrots.

[Endocrinologic studies of male psittacine birds for the evaluation of their reproductive status]. / Endokrinologische Untersuchung männlicher Papageienvögel zur Beurteilung ihres Reproduktionsstatus.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluating methods of hormone measurement in different specimens of male parrots in order to assess their reproductive status and stress axis. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Cockatiels and rose-ringed parakeets were chosen as psittaciforme representatives and their endocrine profiles were examined. In various pre-experiments, suitable techniques for the determination of testosterone in plasma, saliva and faeces of male parrots were established. Before analysing the samples by enzyme immunoassay, blood and faeces were extracted using diethyl ether, while saliva could be tested without extraction. Based on the excretion of mainly conjugated testosterone metabolites, parrots' faecal samples were also hydrolysed with ß-glucuronidase/arylsulfatase before extraction. In addition, the levels of the stress hormone corticosterone were determined by radioimmunoassay in order to assess possible relationships between stress and the secretion of testosterone. RESULTS: The examined psittacine species displayed different seasonal secretion patterns for both testosterone and corticosterone. Cockatiels had maximum plasma testosterone levels in February, in contrast, rose-ringed parakeets showed highest concentrations in November. As a consequence of cumulative excretion, both species showed much higher faecal than plasma testosterone concentrations. In rose-ringed parakeets, the levels of corticosterone in plasma were exceptionally high compared to the cockatiels. CONCLUSION: According to this study, we have been able to establish suitable methods for testosterone analysis in blood and faeces of cockatiels and rose-ringed parakeets, supporting the assessment of their reproductive status. At present saliva does not appear to be an ideal medium for reliable hormone level measurement, thus further investigations are required concerning this subject. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: By means of process analysis, it will be possible to detect increasing testosterone levels and/or pathological alterations, which could be considered in breeding programmes.

Precision of repeated, Doppler-derived indirect blood pressure measurements in conscious psittacine birds.

Although the use of indirect methods for measuring blood pressure has become commonplace in dogs and cats, it is uncertain whether these methods can be extended to avian species with any proven accuracy or precision. To evaluate the precision of indirect blood pressure measurement in conscious psittacine birds by the Doppler flow method, 25 psittacine birds, weighing between 230 and 1263 g and representing 17 commonly kept species, were examined. Birds were manually restrained, and indirect blood pressure measurements were obtained by placing a cuff around the limb proximal to a Doppler ultrasonic flow detector held over either the basilic or cranial tibial artery. Three sets of 3 measurements were obtained from each wing and leg site, with cuff size and site based on pilot study data identifying the selection criteria of cuff placement with the least variance among repeated measurements. A mixed-effects linear regression analysis was performed to evaluate the differences among mean blood pressure measurements in the individual bird, obtained from the wing versus leg site as well as from 3 different cuff placements at each site. Results showed variation attributable to the limb was not significant. However, blood pressure measurements varied significantly between cuff placements on the same limb from the same bird and among individual birds. The precision of these indirect blood pressure measurements was poor. From these results, the meaning and value of Doppler-derived indirect blood pressure measurements obtained in psittacine birds remains in question, warranting further research.

Surveys of avian practitioners and pet owners regarding common behavior problems in psittacine birds.

Avian veterinarians and pet bird owners were solicited to participate in online surveys to gather information about behavior problems in pet birds. A total of 84 avian veterinarians' and 203 psittacine bird owners' responses were analyzed. Behaviors with a high prevalence and a high level of owner concern, in descending order, were aggression, screaming, and feather picking. Veterinarians reported that the most common behavior problems presented to them were feather picking, chronic egg laying, aggression, and screaming, in that order. Most owners seeking advice went elsewhere before talking to their veterinarian. When consulted, most veterinarians recommended a combination of a medical workup, nutritional changes, housing changes, and environmental enrichments for these problem behaviors. Because owners do not often seek a veterinarian's advice, behavior problems exist in birds that are not being addressed by veterinarians. Advising veterinarians to question owners about problem behaviors at every visit will facilitate discussion and improve the treatment and welfare of pet psittacine birds.

Anatomical specializations for nocturnality in a critically endangered parrot, the Kakapo (Strigops habroptilus).

The shift from a diurnal to nocturnal lifestyle in vertebrates is generally associated with either enhanced visual sensitivity or a decreased reliance on vision. Within birds, most studies have focused on differences in the visual system across all birds with respect to nocturnality-diurnality. The critically endangered Kakapo (Strigops habroptilus), a parrot endemic to New Zealand, is an example of a species that has evolved a nocturnal lifestyle in an otherwise diurnal lineage, but nothing is known about its' visual system. Here, we provide a detailed morphological analysis of the orbits, brain, eye, and retina of the Kakapo and comparisons with other birds. Morphometric analyses revealed that the Kakapo's orbits are significantly more convergent than other parrots, suggesting an increased binocular overlap in the visual field. The Kakapo exhibits an eye shape that is consistent with other nocturnal birds, including owls and nightjars, but is also within the range of the diurnal parrots. With respect to the brain, the Kakapo has a significantly smaller optic nerve and tectofugal visual pathway. Specifically, the optic tectum, nucleus rotundus and entopallium were significantly reduced in relative size compared to other parrots. There was no apparent reduction to the thalamofugal visual pathway. Finally, the retinal morphology of the Kakapo is similar to that of both diurnal and nocturnal birds, suggesting a retina that is specialised for a crepuscular niche. Overall, this suggests that the Kakapo has enhanced light sensitivity, poor visual acuity and a larger binocular field than other parrots. We conclude that the Kakapo possesses a visual system unlike that of either strictly nocturnal or diurnal birds and therefore does not adhere to the traditional view of the evolution of nocturnality in birds.

Flexibility in problem solving and tool use of kea and New Caledonian crows in a multi access box paradigm.

Parrots and corvids show outstanding innovative and flexible behaviour. In particular, kea and New Caledonian crows are often singled out as being exceptionally sophisticated in physical cognition, so that comparing them in this respect is particularly interesting. However, comparing cognitive mechanisms among species requires consideration of non-cognitive behavioural propensities and morphological characteristics evolved from different ancestry and adapted to fit different ecological niches. We used a novel experimental approach based on a Multi-Access-Box (MAB). Food could be extracted by four different techniques, two of them involving tools. Initially all four options were available to the subjects. Once they reached criterion for mastering one option, this task was blocked, until the subjects became proficient in another solution. The exploratory behaviour differed considerably. Only one (of six) kea and one (of five) NCC mastered all four options, including a first report of innovative stick tool use in kea. The crows were more efficient in using the stick tool, the kea the ball tool. The kea were haptically more explorative than the NCC, discovered two or three solutions within the first ten trials (against a mean of 0.75 discoveries by the crows) and switched more quickly to new solutions when the previous one was blocked. Differences in exploration technique, neophobia and object manipulation are likely to explain differential performance across the set of tasks. Our study further underlines the need to use a diversity of tasks when comparing cognitive traits between members of different species. Extension of a similar method to other taxa could help developing a comparative cognition research program.