Phonological remediation effects on a child with giftedness and developmental dyslexia. / Efeito da remediação fonológica em criança com altas habilidades/superdotação e dislexia do desenvolvimento.

Twice-exceptionality is characterized as the presence of high performance concomitantly with deficiencies or incompatible conditions. An example is when giftedness manifest associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. This study is a clinical case report referring to the evaluative and interventional process of a 9- year-old child with the paradoxical combination of giftedness associated with dyslexia. It aims to compare the performance in phonological processing, reading and writing before and after phonological remediation. In the first assessment, the child demonstrated alphabetic level in reading, a transition phase between syllabic-alphabetic and alphabetical writing levels, and below-expected performance in phonological processing skills. After intervention, the results showed consistent improvements in phonological processing, the consolidation of alphabetical writing and orthographic reading level. In general, children with isolated dyslexia have persistent difficulties in several skills after intervention. The evolution shown after phonological remediation, especially at reading level, shows different characteristics than expected. Thus, it can be concluded that twice-exceptionality may have favored the overcoming of some of the shown difficulties more successfully. Studies on these combined conditions can contribute to a better understanding of this framework during the development of learning and to formulate specialized interventions.

A dupla-excepcionalidade é caracterizada pela presença de alto desempenho concomitante a deficiências ou condições incompatíveis, como é o caso de altas habilidades associadas a transtornos do neurodesenvolvimento. Esse estudo é um relato de caso clínico referente ao processo avaliativo e interventivo de uma criança de 9 anos com a combinação paradoxal de altas habilidades associadas à dislexia. O objetivo foi comparar o desempenho nas tarefas de processamento fonológico, leitura e escrita pré e pós remediação fonológica. Na primeira avaliação, a criança apresentou nível alfabético na leitura, fase de transição entre os níveis silábico-alfabético e alfabético na escrita e desempenho abaixo do esperado nas habilidades do processamento fonológico. Após a intervenção, houve melhora em habilidades do processamento fonológico, consolidação da escrita alfabética e do nível ortográfico de leitura. Em geral, crianças com dislexia isolada apresentam dificuldades persistentes em várias habilidades após intervenção. A evolução demonstrada após a remediação fonológica, principalmente no nível de leitura, mostra características diferentes do esperado. Assim, pode-se concluir que a dupla-excepcionalidade pode ter favorecido a superação de algumas de suas dificuldades de forma mais exitosa. Estudos sobre estas condições combinadas podem contribuir para a melhor compreensão deste quadro durante o desenvolvimento da aprendizagem e para a formulação de intervenções especializadas.

The Effect of the Team Members Teaching Design vs. Regular Lectures method on the Self-efficacy of the Multiple sclerosis Patients in Iran. Randomised Controlled Trial / El efecto del diseño de enseñanza colaborativa frente al método de clases regulares sobre la autoeficacia de los pacientes con esclerosis múltiple en Irán. Ensayo Controlado Aleatorizado / O efeito do design de ensino colaborativo versus método de aula regular na autoeficácia de pacientes com esclerose múltipla no Irã. Teste controlado e aleatório

Objective. This study was conducted with the aim of the effect of team members teaching design (TMTD) vs. regular Lectures method on the self-efficacy of the multiple sclerosis patients. Methods. This research is a randomized controlled trial study. In this study, 48 multiple sclerosis persons of members of Jahrom MS Society participated. The persons were selected by simple random sampling and then divided into three groups of: TMTD (n=16), regular lecture method (n=16), and control (n=16), by random allocation method. In the intervention groups, six training sessions were held twice a week; control group did not receive education. Data was collected by the MS self-efficacy questionnaire of Rigby et al. in the before, immediately and one month after the intervention. Results. Patients in three intervention and control groups were similar in terms of demographic variables. The results of the repeated measurement test before, immediately and one month after the intervention showed that the mean of the all dimensions of self-efficacy in two intervention groups had increased significantly (p<0.05). While these changes were not significant in the control group (p ≥ 0.05). Also, there was a significant difference in the mean of the all dimensions of self-efficacy between the intervention groups of TMTD and regular lectures. Conclusion. Based on the findings, TMTD compared to regular lectures method had a more significant effect on improving the self-efficacy of multiple sclerosis patients. Therefore, it is recommended that nursing use this educational approach to increase patients' self-efficacy.

Objetivo. Determinar el efecto del diseño de la enseñanza colaborativa de los miembros del equipo (En inglés: Team Members Teaching Design -TMTD) frente al método de las clases regulares sobre la autoeficacia de los pacientes con esclerosis múltiple (EM).Métodos. Ensayo controlado aleatorizado realizado con la participación de 48 personas con esclerosis múltiple afiliados a la Sociedad de Esclerosis Múltiple de Jahrom (Iran), que fueron seleccionados por muestreo aleatorio simple y luego asignados en forma randomizada en tres grupos, dos de intervención: TMTD (n=16) y método de clases regulares (n=16), y un grupo control (n=16). En los grupos de intervención se impartieron seis sesiones educativas (dos por semana); mientras que el grupo control no recibió educación. Se empleó el cuestionario de autoeficacia en EM de Rigby et al. en los momentos: antes, inmediatamente después de terminada la intervención y un mes de finalizada la misma.Resultados. Los pacientes de los tres grupos de intervención y control eran similares en cuanto a variables demográficas. Los resultados de la prueba de medidas repetidas antes, inmediatamente y un mes después de la intervención mostraron que la media de todas las dimensiones de autoeficacia en los dos grupos de intervención había aumentado significativamente (p<0.05). Mientras que estos cambios no fueron significativos en el grupo de control (p ≥ 0.05). Además, hubo una diferencia significativa en la media de todas las dimensiones de autoeficacia entre los grupos de intervención de TMTD y clases regulares, siendo mayor en TMTD. Conclusión. El TMTD comparado con el método de clases regulares, tuvo un mejor efecto en el aumento de la autoeficacia de los pacientes con EM. Por lo tanto, se sugiere a enfermería utilizar este enfoque educativo para aumentar la autoeficacia de los pacientes.

Objetivo. Determinar o efeito do desenho de ensino colaborativo dos membros da equipe (em inglês: Team Members Teaching Design -TMTD) comparado ao método de aulas regulares na autoeficácia de pacientes com esclerose múltipla (EM). Métodos. Ensaio controlado randomizado realizado com a participação de 48 pessoas com esclerose múltipla afiliadas à Sociedade de Esclerose Múltipla de Jahrom (Irã), que foram selecionadas por amostragem aleatória simples e depois distribuídas aleatoriamente em três grupos, dois grupos de intervenção: TMTD (n=16 ) e método de aula regular (n=16), e um grupo controle (n=16). Foram ministradas seis sessões educativas nos grupos de intervenção (duas por semana); enquanto o grupo de controle não recebeu educação. Foi utilizado o questionário de autoeficácia em SM de Rigby et al. nos momentos: antes, imediatamente após o término da intervenção e um mês após seu término. Resultados. Os pacientes dos três grupos intervenção e controle foram semelhantes em termos de variáveis demográficas. Os resultados do teste de medidas repetidas antes, imediatamente e um mês após a intervenção mostraram que a média de todas as dimensões da autoeficácia nos dois grupos de intervenção aumentou significativamente (p<0.05). Embora essas alterações não tenham sido significativas no grupo controle (p ≥ 0.05). Além disso, houve diferença significativa na média de todas as dimensões de autoeficácia entre os grupos de intervenção TMTD e aulas regulares, sendo maior no TMTD. Conclusão. O TMTD comparado ao método de aula regular teve melhor efeito no aumento da autoeficácia dos pacientes com EM. Portanto, sugere-se que a enfermagem utilize essa abordagem educativa para aumentar a autoeficácia dos pacientes.

Response to intervention as an identification strategy of the risk for dyslexia. / Resposta à intervenção como estratégia de identificação do risco para dislexia.

PURPOSE: To develop on intervention process to identify children at risk of dyslexia, based on the Response to Intervention model. Specifically, to identify the pattern of changes in post-intervention performance in tasks of phonological awareness, working memory, lexical access, reading and writing; and to analyze which cognitive functions had a significant effect on the discriminating students at risk of dyslexia. METHOD: Sample of 30 participants with Reading and writing difficulties, aged 8-11, from public/private schools, students from 3rd to 5th grade. Participants were submitted to a battery of cognitive-linguistic tests, before and after 12 intervention sessions. To monitor their performance, five reading and writing lists of words and pseudowords were applied. We qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed the differences in pre- and post-intervention performance of each participant; and among participants in the post-assessment, to understand the patterns of dyslexia vs non-dyslexia groups. RESULTS: There were statistically significant changes in: rapid automatized naming, narrative text comprehension, phonological awareness, rate and typology of hits/misses in reading and writing, and reading speed. Being the last three variables the most sensitive to discriminate the two groups, all with less post-intervention gains for the dyslexia group. CONCLUSIONS: The intervention focused on the stimulation of phonological skills and explicit and systematic teaching of graphophonemic correspondences contributed positively to the evolution of the group's participants. The intervention response approach favored the identification of children with a profile at risk for dyslexia, as distinct from children with other learning difficulties.

OBJETIVO: desenvolver um processo de intervenção para identificação de crianças em risco para dislexia, baseado no modelo de resposta à intervenção. Especificamente, identificar o perfil de mudança no desempenho pós-intervenção em tarefas de consciência fonológica, memória operacional, acesso lexical, leitura, escrita; e analisar quais funções cognitivas tiveram efeito significativo para discriminação de estudantes em risco para dislexia. MÉTODO: amostra composta por 30 participantes com dificuldades na leitura e escrita, entre 8 e 11 anos, de escola pública ou particular, estudantes do 3º ao 5º ano. Todos foram submetidos a uma bateria de testes cognitivo-linguísticos, antes e após a realização de 12 sessões de intervenção. Para monitoramento do desempenho foram aplicadas cinco listas de leitura e escrita de palavras/pseudopalavras. Foram realizadas análises, qualitativas e quantitativas, das diferenças de desempenho pré e pós-intervenção; e entre os participantes na pós avaliação, para compreensão de grupos perfil em risco para dislexia vs não-dislexia. RESULTADOS: ocorreram mudanças estatisticamente significativas em nomeação automática rápida, compreensão de texto, consciência fonológica, taxa e tipologia de acertos/erros na leitura/escrita e velocidade de leitura. Sendo essas três últimas variáveis as que se mostraram mais discriminativas dos grupos, todas com menos ganhos na pós-intervenção para o grupo com perfil em risco de dislexia. CONCLUSÃO: a intervenção com foco na estimulação das habilidades fonológicas e ensino explícito das correspondências grafofonêmicas contribuiu para a evolução dos participantes. A abordagem de resposta à intervenção favoreceu a identificação de crianças com perfil em risco para dislexia, as diferenciando de crianças com outras dificuldades de aprendizagem.

Links between booksharing and early vocabulary development in Costa Rica.

Early vocabulary development is crucial for future cognitive and academic outcomes, and parent-child booksharing has been recognized as a powerful home literacy practice to promote word learning. However, evidence about the link between booksharing and language development in diverse cultural and socioeconomic settings is currently limited, hindering the formulation of a broadly applicable framework to understand the favorable conditions for early vocabulary development. This study explores the relationship between booksharing and early receptive and expressive vocabulary in a sample of 183 mothers and their toddlers in Costa Rica, a context where reading is not a common practice and children have limited access to books. Mothers completed an interview about their booksharing practices and reported children's receptive and expressive vocabulary. Results demonstrated a positive link between maternal booksharing and children's expressive vocabulary. Child gender moderated the link between booksharing and receptive vocabulary, exhibiting a stronger association in girls than in boys. Mothers with lower education levels reported higher expressive vocabulary scores for their children than mothers with higher education levels. These findings underscore the significance of booksharing in the home literacy environment, even in cultural contexts with distinct reading practices. Moreover, they highlight the need to incorporate sociocultural factors into comprehensive accounts concerning the role of booksharing in early word learning.

Impact of reading intervention on the phonological awareness of children with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

PURPOSE: To review studies that have intervention in reading with impacts on phonological awareness in children with autism spectrum disorder. RESEARCH STRATEGIES: Searches took place until February 2021 in Cochrane, Embase, ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), LILACS (Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature), PubMed/Medline, Scopus, Web of Science and gray literature databases. SELECTION CRITERIA: The review included experimental studies with preschoolers and schoolchildren with ASD. Two independent reviewers selected the studies and, in case of disagreement, a third reviewer was consulted. DATA ANALYSIS: Joanna Briggs Institute checklists were used for risk of bias. A random effects meta-analysis was performed and the certainty of the evidence was assessed using the GRADE tool. RESULTS: Eight studies with some impact on phonological awareness were reviewed. The risk of bias was low and moderate. The certainty of the evidence was low for randomized trials and very low for non-randomised trials. Comparison of pre- and post-therapy on the Preschool Literacy Test (TOPEL) showed that children with ASD improved phonological awareness, with a mean difference between baseline and post-therapy of 6.21 (95% CI = 3.75-8.67; I2 = 0%). CONCLUSION: Shared reading and software activities with words and phrases can alter phonological awareness. These results support further research with larger samples and a detailed description of the intervention to observe its effectiveness in phonological awareness.

Empathic attitude of dental students from a peruvian public University associated with reading Habit: a regression analysis / Actitud empática de los estudiantes de odontología de una Universidad pública peruana asociado al hábito de lectura: un análisis de regresión

Abstract The present study aims to identify the empathic attitude of dental students from a Peruvian public university, about their reading habits, as well as the level of studies and other sociodemographic variables. 226 first-, fourth-, and sixth-year students registered in the academic year 2022 were enrolled in the study. The Jefferson Empathy scale, which included 20 items, was used with a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 7, i.e., from totally disagree to totally agree. A file containing questions about the sociodemographic data registry was prepared together with the Jefferson Empathy questionnaire. It was found that the profile of the students was mainly feminine, and the average age was 22 years; they came from Lima. They had the habit of reading and a little more than half of the group did not participate in sports activities. The "adequate" level of empathy was the highest (51.77%). By dichotomizing the response variable, it was found that adequate empathy was related to the habit of reading, especially reading dental books. Dental students from this public university mostly have an adequate level of empathy; it is independent of the sociodemographic variables but is related to reading habits.

Resumen En el presente estudio se planteó identificar la actitud empática de los estudiantes de odontología de una universidad pública peruana en relación al hábito de lectura así como al nivel de estudios y variables sociodemográficas. Se consideró a 226 estudiantes de primero, cuarto y sexto año matriculados en el año académico 2022. Se utilizó la escala de empatía de Jefferson que consta de 20 ítems, y cuyas categorías de respuesta val del 1 al 7 que significa totalmente en desacuerdo a totalmente de acuerdo. Se elaboró una ficha que además contenía una primera parte para llenar de acuerdo a sus datos sociodemográficos. Se encontró que el perfil de los estudiantes perteneció al sexo femenino, con una media de 22 años, procedían de Lima, presentaban el hábito de lectura y un poco más de la mitad del grupo no realizan actividades deportivas. El nivel de empatía adecuado fue el más alto (51.77%). Al dicotomizar la variable respuesta se encontro que la empatía adecuada estuvo relacionada con el hábito de lectura y con la lectura de libros de odontología. Se concluye que los estudiantes de odontología de esta universidad pública tienen mayormente nivel de empatía adecuado y que es independiente de las variables sociodemográficas pero se encuentra relacionado a los hábitos de lectura.

Self-Reported Home Program Adherence by People With Aphasia: Exploring Construct Validity.

PURPOSE: The study purpose was to compare the practice patterns captured by self-reported logbook data and those recorded by a computerized home program application. The current study is part of a larger single-case research design study aimed at investigating the effect of logbook use on home program adherence in people with aphasia poststroke. METHOD: Data from six adults with chronic aphasia with interest in improving their reading were used in this secondary analysis. Participants completed reading comprehension therapy tasks using a mobile application and tablet. The activities were self-directed and designed for people with aphasia to complete independently. We created an aphasia-friendly logbook based on best practices to allow participants to record their estimated total minutes practiced. Participants received instructions to practice the reading therapy application 80 min a day 7 days a week for the duration of the study. We calculated the difference in the total time per day recorded by each participant to the application data collected. RESULTS: All participants used the logbook to record their practice. There was a strong relationship between self-reported logbook practice and application-recorded practice for four of the six participants. Individual differences were noted and explored. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that some people with aphasia can use logbooks with aphasia-friendly modifications to accurately estimate the amount of practice completed outside of therapy sessions.

Differences in scanpath pattern and verbal working memory predicts efficient reading in the Cloze gap-filling test.

Different tests measure text comprehension, including the cloze gap-filling test, often used for language learning. Different studies hypothesized cognitive strategies in this type of test and their relationship with working memory and performance. However, no study investigated the cloze test, working memory, and possible cognitive strategies, while performing the test. Therefore, this study aimed to identify cognitive visual strategies in the cloze test by applying an unsupervised algorithm and to analyze the relationship between these strategies with working memory and performance in the cloze test. Our sample consisted of 51 university students, the largest sample in studies of cognitive strategies with cloze tests. Participants answered an 11-item cloze test in a computer with eye-tracking, a verbal working memory test, and a visuospatial working memory test. Our analysis of participants' scanpath identified two main strategies: one with fewer toggles between text and word bank and fewer fixations than the other one, indicating the existence of a global strategy. Furthermore, a model predicting the efficiency of participants in the cloze test found that item complexity, using a global strategy, and higher scores of working memory were the most significant predictors. These results confirm the hypothesis of a global strategy being related to successfully achieving higher-order reading processes.

A pilot study of axial length changes associated with myopia control spectacles in subjects reading under mesopic conditions.

PURPOSE: To investigate whether axial length changes in subjects wearing myopia control spectacles under mesopic conditions. METHODS: Young users of monofocal spectacles with myopic spherical equivalent ranging from -1.00 D to -5.00 D were enrolled prospectively. Subjects were tested while using a pair of special defocus spectacles with a central zone including the distance myopic correction and a peripheral zone with an addition of +3.50 D. Subjects first read an online book with black letters on white background on a desktop computer with their monofocal spectacles for 20 minutes and then read with special defocus spectacles for another 20 minutes. Reading took place in a darkened room under 20 lux illumination. Before and after these periods, axial length of the right eye was measured ten times using the Lenstar, and average measurements were recorded. RESULTS: The 11 subjects in this pilot study had a mean age of 20.9 ± 7.7 years, and 1 was female. Their mean spherical equivalent of the right eyes was -3.20 ± 2.29 D. As expected, axial length increased by 8.2 ± 9.4 µm (P < 0.01) after 20 minutes of reading with monofocal spectacles in low light. When reading with defocus spectacles under the same conditions, the axial length saw an additional, nonsignificant change of 2.2 ± 12.2 µm (P = 0.56). CONCLUSIONS: When reading in mesopic conditions, the axial length in study subjects did not return to baseline values with myopia control spectacles.

Validation of a computerized version of the MNREAD chart for children.

PURPOSE: We aimed the develop and validate a computerized version of the MNREAD for the assessment of reading speed for children. METHODS: A computerized version of the MNREAD was built in Psykinematix software using the same parameters as the physical chart. We measured the reading velocity of 104 children (n = 44 of the 3rd grade; n = 60 of the 5th grade). Bland-Altaman analysis was used to quantify agreement between two chart measurements. RESULTS: Comparison between the 3rd and 5th-grade children for physical and computerized MNREAD versions showed statistical differences in Maximum Reading Speed (F = 2669.6; p < 0.001), Critical Print Size (F = 17.49; p < 0.001), and Reading Acuity (F = 14.19; p = 0.002) with huge effect size (η2 = 0.930). No differences were found between the versions within grades. Bland-Altman analysis showed 95% of the data points within ± 2 s of the mean difference, suggesting a similarity between versions of the MNREAD parameters. CONCLUSION: Our reading speed values for children in the 5th grade were higher than previous studies, suggesting a better quality of the assessment in the computerized version. Tolerance Limits were calculated as normality references for clinical purposes.

Auditory Category Learning in Children With Dyslexia.

PURPOSE: Developmental dyslexia is proposed to involve selective procedural memory deficits with intact declarative memory. Recent research in the domain of category learning has demonstrated that adults with dyslexia have selective deficits in Information-Integration (II) category learning that is proposed to rely on procedural learning mechanisms and unaffected Rule-Based (RB) category learning that is proposed to rely on declarative, hypothesis testing mechanisms. Importantly, learning mechanisms also change across development, with distinct developmental trajectories in both procedural and declarative learning mechanisms. It is unclear how dyslexia in childhood should influence auditory category learning, a critical skill for speech perception and reading development. METHOD: We examined auditory category learning performance and strategies in 7- to 12-year-old children with dyslexia (n = 25; nine females, 16 males) and typically developing controls (n = 25; 13 females, 12 males). Participants learned nonspeech auditory categories of spectrotemporal ripples that could be optimally learned with either RB selective attention to the temporal modulation dimension or procedural integration of information across spectral and temporal dimensions. We statistically compared performance using mixed-model analyses of variance and identified strategies using decision-bound computational models. RESULTS: We found that children with dyslexia have an apparent selective RB category learning deficit, rather than a selective II learning deficit observed in prior work in adults with dyslexia. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the important skill of auditory category learning is impacted in children with dyslexia and throughout development, individuals with dyslexia may develop compensatory strategies that preserve declarative learning while developing difficulties in procedural learning. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.25148519.

Shared reading: Interaction between parents and children in a natural setting / Leitura compartilhada: interação entre pais e filhos em situação natural

Objective The present study aimed to describe and analyze how parents naturally carry out shared reading with their children, without specific instructions. Additionally, the effect of a brief intervention to teach parents to use shared reading strategies was evaluated. Method Four families with children between the ages of four and five without a diagnosis of any disorder participated. We analyzed home footage captured by parents of shared reading moments, and to analyze the intervention, we measured the number of language stimulus strategies used by the parents as well as measures of the children's language. Results The description of the natural situation generated four categories of analysis: organization of the physical space, contact with the book, the way the story is told and the emotional relationship between parents and children. After the brief intervention, improvements were found in all measured variables when compared to pre-intervention data. Conclusion The importance of guiding families to use more language stimulation strategies in the context of shared reading is discussed, in order to enrich the child's speaking opportunities.

Objetivo O presente estudo teve como objetivo descrever e analisar como os pais realizam a leitura compartilhada com seus filhos, naturalmente, sem instruções específicas. Adicionalmente, foi avaliado o efeito de uma intervenção breve para ensinar pais a usarem estratégias de leitura compartilhada. Método Participaram quatro famílias com crianças entre quatro e cinco anos sem diagnóstico de qualquer transtorno. Foram analisadas filmagens que os pais realizaram em suas casas de um momento de leitura compartilhada e para análise da intervenção foi mensurado o número de utilização das estratégias de estímulo da linguagem pelos pais e medidas de linguagem das crianças. Resultados A descrição da situação natural gerou quatro categorias de análise: organização do espaço físico, contato com o livro, forma como a história é contada e relação afetiva entre pais e filhos. Após a intervenção breve foram encontradas melhorias em todas as variáveis medidas quando comparadas aos dados pré-intervenção. Conclusão Discute-se a importância de orientar as famílias a utilizarem mais estratégias de estímulo de linguagem no contexto de leitura compartilhada, para enriquecer as oportunidades de fala da criança.

La lectura en el aula en dos asignaturas de la escuela secundaria: un estudio comparativo / Reading in the classroom in two secondary school subjects: a comparative study / La lecture en classe dans deux enseignements du secondaire: une étude comparative / A leitura na sala de aula em duas disciplinas do ensino médio: um estudo comparativo

Resumen: Este trabajo se propone un análisis comparativo de las actividades de lectura en dos asignaturas del primer año de la educación secundaria argentina: Prácticas del Lenguaje (PDL) y Ciencias Sociales (CS). Se grabaron en audio ocho clases, cuatro de cada uno de los espacios curriculares. Se analizaron de acuerdo con propuestas teóricas preexistentes que permiten segmentar las observaciones en diferentes unidades, caracterizar los tipos y funciones de lecturas y las estrategias promovidas. En las sesiones de PDL fue más frecuente la lectura como actividad típica de aula y se realizó poniendo en juego mayor variedad de estrategias que en CS. La lectura colectiva genuina mental predominó en PDL, mientras que en CS prevaleció la lectura por parte de las profesoras con comentarios. Los resultados permiten introducir reflexiones relativas a las intervenciones docentes en materia de lectura según la asignatura escolar y los distintos desafíos que supone su enseñanza.

Abstract: This study aims to perform a comparative analysis of reading activities in two first-year subjects of secondary school in Argentina: Prácticas del Lenguaje (PDL) [Language and Literature (LAL)] and Ciencias Sociales (CS) [Social Studies (SS)]. Eight lessons were audio-recorded, four from each study area. They were analyzed in accordance with pre-existing theoretical proposals, which made it possible to segment the observations into different units, characterize the types and functions of readings and the strategies promoted. In Language and Literature, reading was a more frequent classroom activity and was carried out with a greater variety of strategies than in Social Studies. Genuine mental collective reading prevailed in Language and Literature, whereas teachers' reading with comments prevailed in Social Studies. The results lead to reflections on different teaching interventions in reading practices according to the school subject and the different challenges involved in teaching them.

Résumé : Cet article propose une analyse comparative des activités de lecture dans deux enseignements de la première année de l'enseignement secondaire argentin : Pratiques du langage (PDL) et Sciences sociales (CS). Huit classes ont été enregistrées en audio, quatre de chacun des espaces du programme. On a analysé selon des propositions théoriques préexistantes qui permettent de segmenter les observations en différentes unités, caractériser les types et fonctions de lectures et les stratégies promues. Dans les sessions PDL, la lecture fût plus fréquente comme activité typique de la classe et elle s'est réalisée en utilisant une plus grande variété de stratégies que dans CS. La véritable lecture collective mentale prédomina en PdL, mais en CS c'est la lecture par les enseignants avec des commentaires qui a prévalu. Les résultats permettent d'introduire des réflexions sur les interventions pédagogiques concernant la lecture selon l'enseignement scolaire, et les différents enjeux que leur enseignement comporte.

Resumo: Este trabalho propõe uma análise comparativa das atividades de leitura em duas disciplinas do primeiro ano do ensino médio argentino: Prática de Linguagem (PDL) e Ciências Sociais (CS). Gravaram-se em áudio oito aulas, quatro de cada um dos espaços curriculares. Analisaram-se de acordo com as propostas teóricas preexistentes as quais permitem segmentar as observações em diferentes unidades, caracterizar os tipos e funções de leituras e as estratégias promovidas. Nas sessões de PDL foi mais frequente a leitura como atividade típica de sala de aula e se realizou investindo a maior variedade de estratégias que nas CS. A leitura coletiva genuína mental predominou na PDL, enquanto que nas CS prevaleceu a leitura por parte das professoras com comentários. Os resultados permitem introduzir reflexões relativas às intervenções docentes em matéria de leitura segundo a disciplina escolar, e os distintos desafios que supõe seu ensino.

Fathering children aged from 2 to 10: psychometric properties of the IFI-BR-27 / Paternidade com filhos entre 2 e 10 anos de idade: propriedades psicométricas do IFI-BR-27 / Paternidad con hijos de entre 2 y 10 años: propiedades psicométricas del IFI-BR-27

The Inventory of Father Involvement (IFI) was developed to examine paternal involvement among men with children from 5 to 10 years of age. However, father involvement affects child development starting in the child's infancy. In Brazil, a revised version of the instrument (called the IFI-BR-27) was developed to use with fathers of children in a wider age group (2 to 10 years). Thus, in this study we aimed to investigate evidence for validity of this revised version based on internal structure, measurement invariance, and evidence of convergent validity. For this purpose, 572 Brazilian fathers completed a sociodemographic questionnaire, the IFI-BR-27, and either the Father Engagement Questionnaire (FEQ; for fathers of children in early childhood education settings) or the Inventory of Parenting Practices (IPP; for fathers of children in elementary school). Results of confirmatory factor analyses indicated the plausibility of a second-order internal structure for the IFI-BR-27 (χ 2 / df = 3.526; CFI = .937; TLI = .929; RMSEA = .066). Composite reliability for the nine factors varied from .65 to .84. Invariance analyses indicated that the structure is independent of the child's educational setting. Evidence of convergent validity was also found ( r = .67 - FEQ; r = .58 - IPP). Therefore, the IFI-BR-27 is an adequate tool to assess the quality of father involvement for fathers of children in preschool or elementary school. The IFI-BR-27 can contribute to further scientific research, aiding in longitudinal studies, as well as helping professionals to evaluate and encourage specific dimensions of father involvement.(AU)

O Inventory of Father Involvement (IFI) foi desenvolvido para avaliar o envolvimento paterno de homens com filhos de 5 a 10 anos. No entanto, envolvimento paterno afeta o desenvolvimento de crianças desde a primeira infância. No Brasil, uma versão revisada dessa medida (chamada de IFI-BR-27) foi desenvolvida para uso com pais de crianças em uma faixa etária mais ampla (2 a 10 anos). O objetivo deste estudo foi, portanto, investigar evidências de validade dessa versão revisada com base na estrutura interna, invariância de medida e evidências de validade convergente. Para isso, 572 pais brasileiros preencheram um questionário sociodemográfico, o IFI-BR-27 e o Questionário de Engajamento Paterno (QEP; para pais com filhos no Ensino Infantil) e o Inventário de Práticas Parentais (IPP; para pais com filhos no Ensino Fundamental 1). Os resultados de análises fatoriais confirmatórias indicaram a plausibilidade de uma estrutura interna de segunda ordem para o IFI-BR-27 (χ 2 / gl = 3,526; CFI = 0,937; TLI = 0,929; RMSEA = 0,066). A confiabilidade composta para os nove fatores variou de 0,65 a 0,84. Análises de invariância indicaram que a estrutura é independente do ciclo escolar da criança. Também foram encontradas evidências de validade convergente ( r = 0,67 - QEP; r = 0,58 - IPP). Assim, considera-se o IFI-BR-27 uma medida adequada para avaliar a qualidade do envolvimento paterno de pais de crianças do Ensino Infantil ao Fundamental 1. O IFI-BR-27 poderá contribuir para melhorias científicas, viabilizando estudos longitudinais e ajudando profissionais a avaliar e promover dimensões específicas do envolvimento paterno.(AU)

El Inventory of Father Involvement (IFI) se desarrolló para evaluar la participación paterna en la crianza de hijos de entre 5 y 10 años de edad. Es sabido que la participación paterna contribuye al desarrollo infantil desde la primera infancia. En Brasil, una versión brasileña de este instrumento (la IFI-BR-27) se desarrolló para aplicarse a padres con hijos de un grupo de edad más amplio (de 2 a 10 años). Este estudio tuvo por objetivo comprobar evidencia de validez de esta versión revisada con base en la estructura interna, la invariancia del instrumento y la evidencia de validez convergente. Para ello, 572 padres brasileños completaron un cuestionario sociodemográfico, el IFI-BR-27 y el Cuestionario de Involucramiento Paterno (CIP; para padres de niños en el jardín de infantes) y el Inventario de Prácticas Parentales (IPP; para padres de niños en la primaria). Los resultados de los análisis factoriales confirmatorios indicaron la plausibilidad de una estructura interna de segundo orden para el IFI-BR-27 (χ 2 / gl = 3,526; CFI = 0,937; TLI = 0,929; RMSEA =0,066). La confiabilidad compuesta para los nueve factores varió de 0,65 a 0,84. Los análisis de invariancia indicaron que la estructura es independiente del ciclo educativo del niño. También se encontró evidencia de validez convergente ( r =0,67 - CIP; r = 0,58 - IPP). Por lo tanto, el IFI-BR-27 es un instrumento adecuado para evaluar la calidad de participación paterna de padres con hijos en edad preescolar o en la primaria. El IFI-BR-27 permitirá un mayor desarrollo científico, permitiendo estudios longitudinales y ayudando a los profesionales a evaluar y fomentar dimensiones específicas de participación paterna.(AU)

Referentes teóricos sobre lectura y escritura en la formación académico-investigativa de los profesionales de la salud / Theoretical references on reading and writing in the academic-research training of health professionals / Referenciais teóricos sobre leitura e escrita na formação acadêmico-pesquisa de profissionais de saúde

Introducción: La lectura y la escritura constituyen prácticas esenciales en el aprendizaje, la investigación y la comunicación científica. Objetivo: Identificar las teorías y conceptos claves sobre la lectura y la escritura universitaria apropiados para sustentar la formación académico-investigativa de los profesionales de la salud. Método: Se desarrolló una revisión bibliográfica (octubre de 2022 - abril de 2023), a partir de las siguientes fases: búsqueda de información, evaluación, análisis y síntesis. Se utilizaron palabras clave combinadas en diferentes ecuaciones de búsqueda: formación investigativa, habilidades investigativas, comunicación de la ciencia, habilidades comunicativas, lectura, escritura. Se localizaron 238 documentos; se excluyeron 131a partir de los criterios determinados. Desarrollo: Se determinaron los principales aportesen la fase de evaluación, mediante lecturas recurrentes y fichas de análisis. En la fase de análisis se elaboraron fichas de contenido con los conceptos principales, previo agrupamiento de los artículos en grupos temáticos. En la fase de síntesis se identificaron los principales enfoques teóricos. El cuerpo de ideas resultante se organiza como sigue: la lectura y la escritura en la formación académico-investigativa, literacidad y alfabetización académica, lectura y pensamiento crítico, la escritura académica y lectura y escritura en entornos digitales. Consideraciones finales: Existe suficiente respaldo teórico para sustentar la comunicación científica enla formación académico-investigativa de los profesionales de la salud. Se confirma la posibilidad de sustentar pedagógicamente la interacción comunicativa en la apropiación de información y la construcción del conocimiento en contextos disciplinares.(AU)

Introduction: Reading and writing constitute essential practices in learning, research and scientific communication. Objective: To identify the key theories and concepts about college reading and writing appropriate to support the academic-research training of health professionals. Method: A bibliographic review was developed (October 2022 - April 2023), based on the following phases: information search, evaluation, analysis and synthesis.Keywords were used combined in different search equations: research training, research skills, science communication, communication skills, reading, writing.238 documents were located;131 were excluded based on the determined criteria. Development: The main contributions were determined in the evaluation phase, through recurring readings and analysis sheets.In the analysis phase, content sheets were prepared with the main concepts, after grouping the articles into thematic groups.In the synthesis phase, the main theoretical approaches were identified.The resulting body of ideas is organized as follows: reading and writing in academic-research training, literacy and academic literacy, reading and critical thinking, academic writing and reading and writing in digital environments. Final considerations: There is sufficient theoretical background to support scientific communication in the academic-research training of health professionals.The possibility of pedagogically supporting communicative interaction in the appropriation of information and the construction of knowledge in disciplinary contexts is confirmed.(AU)

Introdução: A leitura e a escrita constituem práticas essenciais na aprendizagem, na pesquisa e na comunicação científica. Objetivo: Identificar as principais teorias e conceitos sobre leitura e escrita universitária adequados para subsidiar a formação acadêmico-pesquisadora de profissionais de saúde. Método: Foi desenvolvida uma revisão bibliográfica (outubro de 2022 - abril de 2023), baseada nas seguintes fases: busca de informações, avaliação, análise e síntese.Foram utilizadas palavras-chave combinadas em diferentes equações de busca: formação em pesquisa, habilidades de pesquisa, comunicação científica, habilidades de comunicação, leitura, escrita.Foram localizados 238 documentos;131 foram excluídos com base nos critérios determinados. Desenvolvimento: as principais contribuições foram determinadas na fase de avaliação, por meio de leituras recorrentes e fichas de análise.Na fase de análise foram elaboradas fichas de conteúdo com os principais conceitos, após agrupamento dos artigos em grupos temáticos.Na fase de síntese foram identificadas as principais abordagens teóricas.O conjunto de ideias resultante está organizado da seguinte forma: leitura e escrita na formação académica-investigadora, alfabetização e literacia académica, leitura e pensamento crítico, escrita académica e leitura e escrita em ambientes digitais. Considerações finais: Há respaldo teórico suficiente para fundamentar a comunicação científica na formação acadêmico-pesquisadora dos profissionais de saúde.Confirma-se a possibilidade de apoiar pedagogicamente a interação comunicativa na apropriação da informação e na construção do conhecimento em contextos disciplinares.(AU)

Reading processes of public and private middle school and high school students

Introduction Reading has been widely discussed, mainly due to the published results of international performance tests of schoolchildren. The gaps generated in literacy hinder the development of basic skills necessary for reading, which will have a negative impact on the teaching-learning process from elementary school to high school. This study aimed to compare the reading performance of the students in public and private schools through tests of the Brazilian reading processes-PROLEC-SE-R. Methods Cross-sectional study. The Brazilian adaptation of the PROLEC-SE-R was administered to 436 students: 221 from the state school (G1 6th year, n = 30; G2 7th year, n = 33; G3 8th year, n = 35; G4 9th year, n = 31; G5 1st year, n = 32; G6 2nd year, n = 30; G7 3rd year, n = 30) e 215 private schools (G8 6th year, n = 31; G9 7th year, n = 31; G10 8th year, n = 30; G11 9th year, n = 31; G12 1st year, n = 30; G13 2nd year, n = 31; G14 3rd year, n = 31). Tools of descriptive and bivariate analysis were used. Results Superior performance of the private school students on spelling tests helps their reading as evidenced by their scores for syntactic and semantic processes. When the knowledge of the use of the word in text, extraction of meaning and its understanding was needed, the difficulty of access to the mental lexicon of the studied population became evident. Conclusion The PROLEC-SE-R, in addition to establishing the reading profile of elementary and high school students, shows that the gaps in teaching and learning, which exist between public and private education in the literacy period, accompany students throughout the basic education cycle. Knowing the reading profile and in which process there is a disruption is important so that the teaching of specific strategies can be promoted throughout the entire schooling process, especially in primary and secondary education. (AU)

'What makes you say so?' Metacognition improves the sustained learning of inferential reading skills in English as a second language.

PURPOSE: This quasi-experimental study investigates the impact of enhancing metacognition in learning inferential reading skills in English as a second language. PROCEDURES: Six Grade 4 classes were randomly assigned to two groups. The "Control group" received an instructional unit on inferential reading skills. The "Metacognition group" received the same unit, including metacognitive activities. Students were assessed in metacognitive and inferential reading skills before (pre-test), immediately after (post-test) and four weeks after the intervention (deferred test). FINDINGS: Metacognitive strategy instruction enhanced student learning of inferential reading skills and its sustainability in time. The Metacognition group attained a significantly higher average score in deploying metacognitive skills both in the post and deferred tests, indicating that the intervention was effective, as intended, to this end. While both groups significantly improved their proficiency in inferential reading skills after working with the provided instructional unit, there was a significant difference in the Metacognition group, which outperformed the Control one, even more strongly in the deferred test. CONCLUSIONS: Findings support the importance of deliberately promoting metacognition as it positively impacts learning outcomes and sustainability.

Nível de Leitura de Crianças com Deficiência Auditiva de um Centro Especializado de Reabilitação / Reading Level of Hearing-Impaired Children in a Specialized Rehabilitation Center / Nivel de lectura de niños con discapacidad auditiva de um Centro de Rehabilitación Especializado

Introdução: Crianças com deficiência auditiva necessitam de acompanhamento no serviço de saúde auditiva em uma abordagem ampliada para o cuidado integral à saúde, que considere além da audibilidade outras dimensões do desenvolvimento, como é o caso do desempenho acadêmico. Objetivo: Identificar o nível de compreensão de leitura de vocábulos e sentenças de crianças com deficiência auditiva, usuárias de aparelhos de amplificação sonora individual de um Centro Especializado em Reabilitação correlacionando à audibilidade, vocabulário receptivo e o tempo de uso do AASI. Método: Amostra composta por 18 crianças com deficiência auditiva usuárias de dispositivos eletrônicos sonoros individuais, entre 8 e 12 anos, já alfabetizadas, em escola regular. Os testes utilizados foram: para leitura - Teste de "Compreensão de Sentenças -TELCS", Teste de Desempenho Escolar TDE-II (leitura de palavras) e para o vocabulário receptivo o Peabody-PPVT4. Resultados: O SII-Indice de Inteligibilidade de Fala 55dB e 65dB ≥ 64% demonstraram relação significante com o vocabulário receptivo. O teste de leitura e compreensão de sentenças apresentou relação estatisticamente significante com o SII 65dB ≥ 64% e com o vocabulário receptivo maior que 85. A consistência do uso do aparelho não demonstrou relação com nenhum dos dados do SII 55dB, SII 65dB, vocabulário, leitura de palavras e leitura de sentenças. Conclusão: A avaliação de leitura indica ser um fator relevante na análise de desenvolvimento da criança com deficiência auditiva correlacionada aos fatores de audibilidade e vocabulário. (AU)

Introduction: Children with hearing impairment need monitoring in the hearing health service in an expanded approach to comprehensive health care, which considers other dimensions of development, such as academic performance, in addition to audibility. Objective: To identify the level of reading comprehension of words and sentences of children with hearing impairment, hearing aid users at a Specialized Rehabilitation Center, correlating it with audibility, receptive vocabulary and the time of use of the hearing aid. Method: Sample composed of 18 children with hearing impairment fitted to individual electronic sound devices, between 8 and 12 years old, already literate, in regular school. The tests used were: for reading - "Sentence Comprehension-TELCS" Test, TDE-II School Performance Test (word reading) and for receptive vocabulary the Peabody-PPVT4. Results: The SII-Speech Intelligibility Index 55dB and 65dB ≥ 64% demonstrated a significant relationship with receptive vocabulary. The sentence reading and comprehension test showed a statistically significant relationship with SII 65dB ≥ 64% and receptive vocabulary greater than 85. The consistency of device use did not demonstrate a relationship with any of the SII 55dB, SII 65dB, vocabulary, word reading and sentence reading. Conclusion: The reading assessment indicates that it is a relevant factor in the analysis of the development of children with hearing impairment, correlated with audibility and vocabulary factors. (AU)

Introducción: Los niños con discapacidad auditiva necesitan seguimiento en el servicio de salud auditiva en un enfoque ampliado de atención integral en salud, que considere otras dimensiones del desarrollo, como el rendimiento académico, además de la audibilidad. Objetivo: Identificar el nivel de comprensión lectora de palabras y oraciones de niños con discapacidad auditiva, usuarios de dispositivos individuales de amplificación de sonido en un Centro de Rehabilitación Especializado, correlacionándolo con la audibilidad, el vocabulario receptivo y el tiempo de uso del audífono. Método: Muestra compuesta por 18 niños con discapacidad auditiva que utilizan dispositivos electrónicos de sonido individuales, entre 8 y 12 años, ya alfabetizados, en escuela regular. Las pruebas utilizadas fueron: para lectura - Test de "comprensión de oraciones -TELCS", TDE-II School Performance Test (lectura de palabras) y para vocabulario receptivo el Peabody-PPVT4. Resultados: El Índice de Inteligibilidad del Habla SII 55dB y 65dB ≥ 64% demostró una relación significativa con el vocabulario receptivo. La prueba de lectura y comprensión de oraciones mostró una relación estadísticamente significativa con SII 65dB ≥ 64% y vocabulario receptivo mayor a 85. La consistencia en el uso del dispositivo no demostró relación con ninguna de las pruebas SII 55dB, SII 65dB, vocabulario, lectura de palabras y oraciones. lectura. Conclusión: La evaluación de la lectura indica que es un factor relevante en el análisis del desarrollo de niños con discapacidad auditiva, correlacionado con factores de audibilidad y vocabulario. (AU)

Performance in decoding and writing of children with Developmental Language Disorder: preliminary data. / Desempenho em decodificação e escrita de crianças com Transtorno do Desenvolvimento da Linguagem: dados preliminares.

PURPOSE: to verify the performance of children with Developmental Language Disorder in decoding and writing tests in order to better understand their manifestations and the process of acquiring written language skills. METHODS: The study subjects were 80 children. The Research Group consisted of 16 children diagnosed with Developmental Language Disorder, 13 males and 3 females, mean age of 7.3. The Control Group counted on 64 subjects paired in gender, age, education and socioeconomic level with the Control Group in a 4:1 ratio. The ability to decode words and pseudowords of both groups was evaluated, measuring the time spent to correctly read words and the percentage of correct answers, also considering the length of the word/pseudoword. The writing evaluation was carried out in the control group, which had its spelling errors analyzed and categorized. All data underwent descriptive and inferential statistical analysis. RESULTS: The data indicated a longer decoding time and a lower percentage of correct answers for the children from the Research Group. Regarding spelling errors, there was a predominance of arbitrary spelling errors. CONCLUSION: The data showed that children with Developmental Language Disorder tend to have a longer decoding time, greater percentage of errors than their peers and tend to present spelling errors more concentrated in natural orthography.

OBJETIVO: Verificar o desempenho de crianças com diagnóstico de Transtorno do Desenvolvimento da Linguagem em provas de decodificação e escrita para assim entender melhor suas manifestações e o processo de aquisição das habilidades da linguagem escrita. MÉTODO: Foram sujeitos do estudo 80 crianças. Compuseram o Grupo-Pesquisa 16 crianças com diagnóstico de Transtorno do Desenvolvimento da Linguagem, sendo 13 do gênero masculino e 3 do gênero feminino, média de idade de 7,3. O Grupo Controle contou com 64 sujeitos pareados em gênero, idade, escolaridade e nível sócio econômico com o Grupo Controle na proporção 4:1. Foi realizada avaliação da habilidade de decodificação de palavras e pseudopalavras de ambos os grupos, contabilizando-se o tempo de leitura de palavras corretas e a porcentagem de acertos, considerando-se também a extensão da palavra/pseudopalavra. A avaliação da escrita foi realizada no grupo controle, que teve seus erros ortográficos analisados e categorizados. Todos os dados passaram por análise estatística descritiva e inferencial. RESULTADOS: Os dados indicaram maior tempo de decodificação e menor porcentagem de acertos para as crianças do Grupo Pesquisa. Em relação aos erros ortográficos, observou-se a predominância de erros de ortografia arbitrária. CONCLUSÃO: Os dados evidenciam que crianças com Transtorno do Desenvolvimento da Linguagem tendem a apresentar maior tempo de decodificação, maior porcentagem de erros do que seus além, de erros ortográficos mais concentrados na ortografia natural.

Profile of fluency in spontaneous speech, reading, and retelling of texts by adults who stutter. / Perfil da fluência na fala espontânea, leitura e no reconto de textos de adultos que gaguejam.

PURPOSE: to describe the profile of fluency concerning the typology of disfluencies, speed, and frequency of disruptions in spontaneous speech, reading, and retelling; to compare the fluency profile in adults who stutter in spontaneous speech, reading, and retelling of text. METHODS: The present work is a cross-sectional comparative study with a sample composed of 15 adults who stutter of both sexes, with higher education or equivalent to complete elementary school II. Samples were collected in the tasks of spontaneous speech, reading, and text retelling through video calls made individually with the participants. The first 200 syllables expressed in each task were transcribed and analyzed according to the Fluency Profile Assessment Protocol (FPAP). The study compared the frequency of common and stuttering disfluencies and the speed in the different tasks surveyed. The Kruskal & Wallis test was used together with Duncan's multiple comparisons test to compare the medians and verify possible differences between the tasks researched with a significance level of 5%. RESULTS: The reading task presented a lower number of common disfluencies and a percentage of speech discontinuity about spontaneous speech and retelling tasks. No statistically significant differences were found between stuttering disfluencies in the three tasks surveyed. CONCLUSION: This study showed that there are differences in the occurrence of common disfluencies - hesitations, interjections, and revisions - and in the percentage of speech discontinuity during an oral reading of adults who stutter concerning spontaneous speech and text retelling.

OBJETIVO: descrever o perfil da fluência em relação à tipologia das disfluências, velocidade e frequência de rupturas na fala espontânea, na leitura e no reconto; comparar o perfil da fluência em adultos que gaguejam na fala espontânea, na leitura e no reconto de texto. MÉTODO: O trabalho é um estudo transversal comparativo com amostra composta por 15 adultos que gaguejam de ambos os sexos, com formação superior ou equivalente ao ensino fundamental II completo. Foram coletadas amostras nas tarefas de fala espontânea, leitura e reconto de texto por meio de video chamadas realizadas individualmente. As 200 primeiras sílabas expressas de cada tarefa foram transcritas e analisadas segundo o Protocolo de Avaliação do Perfil da Fluência (PAPF). O estudo comparou a frequência das disfluências comuns e gagas e a velocidade nas tarefas pesquisadas. Adotou-se o teste de Kruskal & Wallis em conjunto com o de comparações múltiplas de Duncan para comparar as medianas e verificar possíveis diferenças entre as tarefas pesquisadas com nível de significância de 5%. RESULTADOS: A tarefa de leitura apresentou menor número de disfluências comuns e percentual de descontinuidade de fala em relação às tarefas de fala espontânea e reconto. Não foram encontradas diferenças estatisticamente significantes entre as disfluências gagas nas três tarefas pesquisadas. CONCLUSÃO: Este trabalho mostrou que existem diferenças na ocorrência das disfluências comuns - hesitações, interjeições e revisões - e no percentual de descontinuidade de fala durante a leitura oral de adultos que gaguejam em relação à fala espontânea e ao reconto de texto.