Physiological roles of CNS muscarinic receptors gained from knockout mice.

Because the five muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes have overlapping distributions in many CNS tissues, and because ligands with a high degree of selectivity for a given subtype long remained elusive, it has been difficult to determine the physiological functions of each receptor. Genetically engineered knockout mice, in which one or more muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtype has been inactivated, have been instrumental in identifying muscarinic receptor functions in the CNS, at the neuronal, circuit, and behavioral level. These studies revealed important functions of muscarinic receptors modulating neuronal activity and neurotransmitter release in many brain regions, shaping neuronal plasticity, and affecting functions ranging from motor and sensory function to cognitive processes. As gene targeting technology evolves including the use of conditional, cell type specific strains, knockout mice are likely to continue to provide valuable insights into brain physiology and pathophysiology, and advance the development of new medications for a range of conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and addictions, as well as non-opioid analgesics. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Neuropharmacology on Muscarinic Receptors'.

Effects of muscarinic receptor antagonists on cocaine discrimination in wild-type mice and in muscarinic receptor M1, M2, and M4 receptor knockout mice.

Muscarinic M1/M4 receptor stimulation can reduce abuse-related effects of cocaine and may represent avenues for treating cocaine addiction. Muscarinic antagonists can mimic and enhance effects of cocaine, including discriminative stimulus (SD) effects, but the receptor subtypes mediating those effects are not known. A better understanding of the complex cocaine/muscarinic interactions is needed to evaluate and develop potential muscarinic-based medications. Here, knockout mice lacking M1, M2, or M4 receptors (M1-/-, M2-/-, M4-/-), as well as control wild-type mice and outbred Swiss-Webster mice, were trained to discriminate 10mg/kg cocaine from saline. Muscarinic receptor antagonists with no subtype selectivity (scopolamine), or preferential affinity at the M1, M2, or M4 subtype (telenzepine, trihexyphenidyl; methoctramine, AQ-RA 741; tropicamide) were tested alone and in combination with cocaine. In intact animals, antagonists with high affinity at M1/M4 receptors partially substituted for cocaine and increased the SD effect of cocaine, while M2-preferring antagonists did not substitute, and reduced the SD effect of cocaine. The cocaine-like effects of scopolamine were absent in M1-/- mice. The cocaine SD attenuating effects of methoctramine were absent in M2-/- mice and almost absent in M1-/- mice. The findings indicate that the cocaine-like SD effects of muscarinic antagonists are primarily mediated through M1 receptors, with a minor contribution of M4 receptors. The data also support our previous findings that stimulation of M1 receptors and M4 receptors can each attenuate the SD effect of cocaine, and show that this can also be achieved by blocking M2 autoreceptors, likely via increased acetylcholine release.

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors participate in small intestinal mucosal homeostasis.

BACKGROUND: Intestinal mucosal homeostasis is controlled by multiple factors and an intact, functional mucosa is essential for survival. Maintenance of the epithelium begins with crypt base stem cells which eventually give rise to all epithelial cell types. Evidence suggests an important role of the enteric cholinergic nervous system in these processes. We hypothesized that mice with altered muscarinic signaling would exhibit differences in mucosal morphometric and proliferative parameters compared to wild-type mice. METHODS: Mouse lines specifically deficient in one of the five muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (M1KO-M5KO) were used for experiments. Distal ileal segments were obtained and histologic sections created. Villus height and crypt depth were measured using H&E-stained sections, while crypt proliferation index (CPI) was calculated using Ki67-stained sections. RESULTS: The ileal mucosa from mice deficient in mAChRs exhibited differences from wild-type ileal mucosa in nearly all measured parameters. Knockout of mAChR2, mAChR3 and mAChR5 resulted in changes in all measured parameters. Ileal mucosa from M2KO mice showed an unexpected combination decreased VH but paradoxically increased CD and CPI. CONCLUSIONS: Alterations in mAChR signaling causes change in ileal mucosal morphometry and crypt cell proliferation. While all mAChR subtypes may be involved, mAChR2, mAChR3, and mAChR5 appear to be critical for mucosal homeostasis. Further characterization of these pathways is warranted.

Effects of dopamine D1-like and D2-like antagonists on cocaine discrimination in muscarinic receptor knockout mice.

Muscarinic and dopamine brain systems interact intimately, and muscarinic receptor ligands, like dopamine ligands, can modulate the reinforcing and discriminative stimulus (S(D)) effects of cocaine. To enlighten the dopamine/muscarinic interactions as they pertain to the S(D) effects of cocaine, we evaluated whether muscarinic M1, M2 or M4 receptors are necessary for dopamine D1 and/or D2 antagonist mediated modulation of the S(D) effects of cocaine. Knockout mice lacking M1, M2, or M4 receptors, as well as control wild-type mice and outbred Swiss-Webster mice, were trained to discriminate 10mg/kg cocaine from saline in a food-reinforced drug discrimination procedure. Effects of pretreatments with the dopamine D1 antagonist SCH 23390 and the dopamine D2 antagonist eticlopride were evaluated. In intact mice, both SCH 23390 and eticlopride attenuated the cocaine discriminative stimulus effect, as expected. SCH 23390 similarly attenuated the cocaine discriminative stimulus effect in M1 knockout mice, but not in mice lacking M2 or M4 receptors. The effects of eticlopride were comparable in each knockout strain. These findings demonstrate differences in the way that D1 and D2 antagonists modulate the S(D) effects of cocaine, D1 modulation being at least partially dependent upon activity at the inhibitory M2/M4 muscarinic subtypes, while D2 modulation appeared independent of these systems.

Deletion 1q43-44 in a patient with clinical diagnosis of Warburg-Micro syndrome.

Warburg-Micro syndrome (WARBM) is an autosomal recessive syndrome characterized by microcephaly, microphthalmia, microcornea, congenital cataracts, optic atrophy and central nervous system malformations. This syndrome is caused by mutations in the RAB3GAP1/2 and RAB18 genes, part of the Rab family, and in the TBC1D20 gene, which contributes to lipid droplet formation/metabolism. Here we present a patient with clinical diagnosis of WARBM syndrome, who did not have mutations in either the RAB3GAP1/2 genes, in the main exons of RAB18, nor in the TBC1D20 gene. However, the analysis with CGH-array detected a 9.6 Mb deletion at 1q43-qter. We performed a genotype-phenotype correlation using 20 previously published patients in whom the coordinates of the deleted regions were defined. The comparative analysis revealed that the current patient and three of the other 20 patients share the loss of six genes, four of which are related with the family of G proteins, and are strongly expressed in the brain, retina, heart and kidney. Consequently, their haploinsufficiency may result in different combinations of clinical alterations, including some of those of WARBM syndrome. In addition, the haploinsufficiency of other genes may contribute to other defects and clinical variability. Additionally, for the genotype-phenotype correlation, one must also consider molecular pathways that can result in the observed alterations. To early confirm a genetic diagnosis is essential for the patient and family. The current patient was considered as having a recessive syndrome, but since he had a "de novo" deletion, there was not an increased recurrence risk.

Identification of muscarinic receptor subtypes involved in catecholamine secretion in adrenal medullary chromaffin cells by genetic deletion.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Activation of muscarinic receptors results in catecholamine secretion in adrenal chromaffin cells in many mammals, and muscarinic receptors partly mediate synaptic transmission from the splanchnic nerve, at least in guinea pigs. To elucidate the physiological functions of muscarinic receptors in chromaffin cells, it is necessary to identify the muscarinic receptor subtypes involved in excitation. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: To identify muscarinic receptors, pharmacological tools and strains of mice where one or several muscarinic receptor subtypes were genetically deleted were used. Cellular responses to muscarinic stimulation in isolated chromaffin cells were studied with the patch clamp technique and amperometry. KEY RESULTS: Muscarinic M1, M4 and M5 receptors were immunologically detected in mouse chromaffin cells, and these receptors disappeared after the appropriate gene deletion. Mouse cells secreted catecholamines in response to muscarinic agonists, angiotensin II and a decrease in external pH. Genetic deletion of M1, but not M3, M4 or M5, receptors in mice abolished secretion in response to muscarine, but not to other stimuli. The muscarine-induced secretion was suppressed by MT7, a snake peptide toxin specific for M1 receptors. Similarly, muscarine failed to induce an inward current in the presence of MT7 in mouse and rat chromaffin cells. The binding affinity of VU0255035 for the inhibition of muscarine-induced currents agreed with that for the M1 receptor. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Based upon the effects of genetic deletion of muscarinic receptors and MT7, it is concluded that the M1 receptor alone is responsible for muscarine-induced catecholamine secretion.

Differential regulation of primary afferent input to spinal cord by muscarinic receptor subtypes delineated using knockout mice.

Stimulation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) inhibits nociceptive transmission at the spinal level. However, it is unclear how each mAChR subtype regulates excitatory synaptic input from primary afferents. Here we examined excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) of dorsal horn neurons evoked by dorsal root stimulation in spinal cord slices from wild-type and mAChR subtype knock-out (KO) mice. In wild-type mice, mAChR activation with oxotremorine-M decreased the amplitude of monosynaptic EPSCs in ∼67% of neurons but increased it in ∼10% of neurons. The inhibitory effect of oxotremorine-M was attenuated by the M2/M4 antagonist himbacine in the majority of neurons, and the remaining inhibition was abolished by group II/III metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) antagonists in wild-type mice. In M2/M4 double-KO mice, oxotremorine-M inhibited monosynaptic EPSCs in significantly fewer neurons (∼26%) and increased EPSCs in significantly more neurons (33%) compared with wild-type mice. Blocking group II/III mGluRs eliminated the inhibitory effect of oxotremorine-M in M2/M4 double-KO mice. In M2 single-KO and M4 single-KO mice, himbacine still significantly reduced the inhibitory effect of oxotremorine-M. However, the inhibitory and potentiating effects of oxotremorine-M on EPSCs in M3 single-KO and M1/M3 double-KO mice were similar to those in wild-type mice. In M5 single-KO mice, oxotremorine-M failed to potentiate evoked EPSCs, and its inhibitory effect was abolished by himbacine. These findings indicate that activation of presynaptic M2 and M4 subtypes reduces glutamate release from primary afferents. Activation of the M5 subtype either directly increases primary afferent input or inhibits it through indirectly stimulating group II/III mGluRs.

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor activation blocks long-term potentiation at cerebellar parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses via cannabinoid signaling.

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) are known to modulate synaptic plasticity in various brain areas. A signaling pathway triggered by mAChR activation is the production and release of endocannabinoids that bind to type 1 cannabinoid receptors (CB1R) located on synaptic terminals. Using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from rat cerebellar slices, we have demonstrated that the muscarinic agonist oxotremorine-m (oxo-m) blocks the induction of presynaptic long-term potentiation (LTP) at parallel fiber (PF)-Purkinje cell synapses in a CB1R-dependent manner. Under control conditions, LTP was induced by delivering 120 PF stimuli at 8 Hz. In contrast, no LTP was observed when oxo-m was present during tetanization. PF-LTP was restored when the CB1R antagonist N-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-5-(4-iodophenyl)-4-methyl-N-1-piperidinyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamide (AM251) was coapplied with oxo-m. Furthermore, the suppressive effect of oxo-m on PF-LTP was abrogated by the GDP analog GDP-ß-S (applied intracellularly), the phospholipase C inhibitor U-73122, and the diacylglycerol lipase inhibitor tetrahydrolipstatin (THL), suggesting that cannabinoid synthesis results from the activation of Gq-coupled mAChRs present on Purkinje cells. The oxo-m-mediated suppression of LTP was also prevented in the presence of the M3 receptor antagonist DAU 5884, and was absent in M1/M3 receptor double-KO mice, identifying M3 receptors as primary oxo-m targets. Our findings allow for the possibility that cholinergic signaling in the cerebellum--which may result from long-term depression (LTD)-related disinhibition of cholinergic neurons in the vestibular nuclei--suppresses presynaptic LTP to prevent an up-regulation of transmitter release that opposes the reduction of postsynaptic responsiveness. This modulatory capacity of mAChR signaling could promote the functional penetrance of LTD.

Decreased cortical muscarinic M1 receptors in schizophrenia are associated with changes in gene promoter methylation, mRNA and gene targeting microRNA.

Many studies have shown decreased cortical muscarinic M1 receptors (CHRM1) in schizophrenia (Sz), with one study showing Sz can be separated into two populations based on a marked loss of CHRM1 (-75%) in -25% of people (Def-Sz) with the disorder. To better understand the mechanism contributing to the loss of CHRM1 in Def-Sz, we measured specific markers of gene expression in the cortex of people with Sz as a whole, people differentiated into Def-Sz and people with Sz that do not have a deficit in cortical CHRM1 (Non-Def-Sz) and health controls. We now report that cortical CHRM1 gene promoter methylation and CHRM1 mRNA are decrease in Sz, Def-Sz and Non-Def-Sz but levels of the micro RNA (miR)-107, a CHRM1 targeting miR, are increased only in Def-Sz. We also report in vitro data strongly supporting the notion that miR-107 levels regulate CHRM1 expression. These data suggest there is a reversal of the expected inverse relationship between gene promoter methylation and CHRM1 mRNA in people with Sz and that a breakdown in gene promoter methylation control of CHRM1 expression is contributing to the global pathophysiology of the syndrome. In addition, our data argues that increased levels of at least one miR, miR-107, is contributing to the marked loss of cortical CHRM1 in Def-Sz and this may be a differentiating pathophysiology. These latter data continue to support the hypothesis that microRNAs (miRNA) have a role in the underlying neurobiology of Sz but argue they are differentially affected in subsets of people within that syndrome.

Muscarinic receptor subtypes involved in regulation of colonic motility in mice: functional studies using muscarinic receptor-deficient mice.

Although muscarinic M(2) and M(3) receptors are known to be important for regulation of gastric and small intestinal motility, muscarinic receptor subtypes regulating colonic function remain to be investigated. The aim of this study was to characterize muscarinic receptors involved in regulation of colonic contractility. M(2) and/or M(3) receptor knockout (KO) and wild-type mice were used in in vivo (defecation, colonic propulsion) and in vitro (contraction) experiments. Amount of feces was significantly decreased in M(3)R-KO and M(2)/M(3)R-KO mice but not in M(2)R-KO mice. Ranking of colonic propulsion was wild-type=M(2)R-KO>M(3)R-KO>M(2)/M(3)R-KO. In vitro, the amplitude of migrating motor complexes in M(2)R-KO, M(3)R-KO and M(2)/M(3)R-KO mice was significantly lower than that in wild-type mice. Carbachol caused concentration-dependent contraction of the proximal colon and distal colon from wild-type mice. In M(2)R-KO mice, the concentration-contraction curves shifted to the right and downward. In contrast, carbachol caused non-sustained contraction and relaxation in M(3)R-KO mice depending on its concentration. Carbachol did not cause contraction but instead caused relaxation of colonic strips from M(2)/M(3)R-KO mice. 4-[[[(3-chlorophenyl)amino]carbonyl]oxy]-N,N,N-trimethyl-2-butyn-1-aminium chloride (McN-A-343) caused a non-sustained contraction of colonic strips from wild-type mice, and this contraction was changed to a sustained contraction by tetrodotoxin, pirenzepine and L-nitroarginine methylester (L-NAME). In the colon of M(2)/M(3)R-KO mice, McN-A-343 caused only relaxation, which was decreased by tetrodotoxin, pirenzepine and L-NAME. In conclusion, M(1), M(2) and M(3) receptors regulate colonic motility of the mouse. M(2) and M(3) receptors mediate cholinergic contraction, but M(1) receptors on inhibitory nitrergic nerves counteract muscarinic contraction.

Involvement of decreased muscarinic receptor function in prepulse inhibition deficits in mice reared in social isolation.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: We have previously reported that galantamine, a weak acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, improves prepulse inhibition (PPI) deficits in mice reared in social isolation. ACh receptors are involved in the underlying mechanism of PPI, but whether rearing in social isolation causes dysfunction of the cholinergic system is unknown. In this study, we examined the involvement of muscarinic receptors in the improvement of PPI deficits induced by galantamine, and whether the cholinergic system is altered in mice reared in isolation. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Three-week-old male ddY mice were housed in isolated cages for 6 weeks before the initiation of experiments to create PPI deficits. Cholinergic functions were determined by measuring the behavioural and neurochemical responses to nicotinic and muscarinic receptor agonists. KEY RESULTS: The improvement by galantamine of social isolation-induced PPI deficits was blocked by scopolamine, a non-selective muscarinic antagonist, and telenzepine, a preferential M1 receptor antagonist. Activation of M1 receptors improved social isolation-induced PPI deficits. Social isolation did not affect choline acetyltransferase and acetylcholinesterase activities in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, but it reduced the locomotor-suppressive response to muscarinic agonist oxotremorine, but not to nicotine. The isolation also attenuated the M1 receptor agonist N-desmethylclozapine-induced increase in prefrontal dopamine release. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Galantamine improves PPI deficits of mice reared in social isolation via activation of M1 receptors. Social isolation reduces the muscarinic, especially M1, receptor function and this is involved in PPI deficits.

Decreased Neuregulin 1 C-terminal fragment in Brodmann's area 6 of patients with schizophrenia.

Neuregulin 1 (NRG1) is a susceptibility gene for schizophrenia. A decrease in NRG1-ErbB4 signalling has also been associated with the disease. ß-amyloid precursor protein-cleaving enzyme (BACE1) processes type III NRG1 precursor, a major neuregulin variant expressed in the brain, to release NRG1 fragments that trigger signalling events and activation of neurotransmitter receptors. Experimental evidence suggests that muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (CHRM) regulate BACE1 expression. Having recently shown that CHRM1 levels are decreased selectively in frontal cortex regions of a subpopulation of schizophrenic patients (muscarinic receptor deficit schizophrenia, MRDS) we aimed to compare the protein expression of BACE1 and NRG1 in the agranular frontal cortex Brodmann's area 6 of SCZ subjects with normal levels of CHRM1 (N = 19), MRDS (N = 20), and age/gender-matched non-psychiatric (healthy) controls (HC; N = 20). Western blot analysis of post-mortem samples showed that the levels of BACE1 and full-length NRG1 precursor (130 kDa) did not differ significantly between the three groups. In contrast, the levels of the NRG1 C-terminal fragment (NRG1-CTF) were decreased by approximately 50% in both schizophrenic groups compared to the HC group (p<0.0027). The ratio of NRG1-CTF versus NRG1 precursor was significantly reduced in the SCZ groups compared to the HC group (p = 0.051). There was no correlation between the levels of either full-length NRG1, NRG1-CTF, or BACE1 and the final recorded doses of antipsychotic drugs for the subjects with schizophrenia. A positive correlation was found between BACE1 and full-length NRG1 precursor in the HC group (r(2) = 0.671, p<0.001) but not in the schizophrenic groups. These data suggest that the proteolytic processing of NRG1 is impaired in schizophrenia.

Drugs with anticholinergic properties: a potential risk factor for psychosis onset in Alzheimer's disease?

Psychosis in Alzheimer's disease is common and troublesome. The impact on the quality of life of both patients and caregivers is high and drug treatments raise concern in terms of both efficacy and safety. Therefore, identifying the risk factors that play an important role in the onset of psychosis is mandatory for the prevention of this clinical condition. From a biological point of view, drugs with anticholinergic properties are a reasonable cause of psychosis. Demented patients have been found to use a disproportionate amount of drugs with anticholinergic properties. On the other hand, new evidence suggests that the cholinergic system may be implicated not only with the onset of cognitive impairment, but even in the genesis of psychosis symptoms. This review focuses on biological and clinical data which suggest that anti-cholinergic drugs should be regarded as a potential risk factor for psychosis in Alzheimer's disease.

Neuronal M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors are essential for somatotroph proliferation and normal somatic growth.

The molecular pathways that promote the proliferation and maintenance of pituitary somatotrophs and other cell types of the anterior pituitary gland are not well understood at present. However, such knowledge is likely to lead to the development of novel drugs useful for the treatment of various human growth disorders. Although muscarinic cholinergic pathways have been implicated in regulating somatotroph function, the physiological relevance of this effect and the localization and nature of the receptor subtypes involved in this activity remain unclear. We report the surprising observation that mutant mice that selectively lack the M(3) muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtype in the brain (neurons and glial cells; Br-M3-KO mice) showed a dwarf phenotype associated with a pronounced hypoplasia of the anterior pituitary gland and a marked decrease in pituitary and serum growth hormone (GH) and prolactin. Remarkably, treatment of Br-M3-KO mice with CJC-1295, a synthetic GH-releasing hormone (GHRH) analog, rescued the growth deficit displayed by Br-M3-KO mice by restoring normal pituitary size and normal serum GH and IGF-1 levels. These findings, together with results from M(3) receptor/GHRH colocalization studies and hypothalamic hormone measurements, support a model in which central (hypothalamic) M(3) receptors are required for the proper function of hypothalamic GHRH neurons. Our data reveal an unexpected and critical role for central M(3) receptors in regulating longitudinal growth by promoting the proliferation of pituitary somatotroph cells.

Muscarinic receptor subtypes in cilia-driven transport and airway epithelial development.

Ciliary beating of airway epithelial cells drives the removal of mucus and particles from the airways. Mucociliary transport and possibly airway epithelial development are governed by muscarinic acetylcholine receptors but the precise roles of the subtypes involved are unknown. This issue was addressed by determining cilia-driven particle transport, ciliary beat frequency, and the composition and ultrastructural morphology of the tracheal epithelium in M1-M5 muscarinic receptor gene-deficient mice. Knockout of M3 muscarinic receptors prevented an increase in particle transport speed and ciliary beat frequency in response to muscarine. Furthermore, the ATP response after application of muscarine was blunted. Pretreatment with atropine before application of muscarine restored the response to ATP. Additional knockout of the M2 receptor in these mice partially restored the muscarine effect, most likely through the M1 receptor, and normalised the ATP response. M1, M4 and M5 receptor-deficient mice exhibited normal responses to muscarine. None of the investigated mutant mouse strains had any impairment of epithelial cellular structure or composition. In conclusion, M3 receptors stimulate whereas M2 receptors inhibit cilia-driven particle transport. The M1 receptor increases cilia-driven particle transport if the M3 and M2 receptors are missing. None of the receptors is necessary for epithelial development.

[Functional connectivity of neurons of the frontal cortex and hippocampus under conditions of cholinergic deficit during choice behavior].

In cat experiments under conditions of choice between two different strategies of the instrumental behavior (impulsive and self-controlling), functional connectivity of neurons in the frontal cortex, hippocampus and between them was assessed on the basis of the analysis of wide and narrow peaks of cross correlation histograms of several spike series and their number. The functional connectivity of neurons in the above mentioned structures was better expressed in self-controlling cats than in animals with mixed impulsive/self-controlling reactions. On the contrary, the influence of an outer source assessed by the number of the wide peaks of cross correlation histograms was more pronounced in cats with mixed impulsive/self-controlling reactions. A blockade of M-cholinoreceptors impaired the functional connectivity between the neurons in the frontal cortex, hippocampus and in fronto-hippocampal relationships, but increased the influence on them from the outer sources. At the level of hippocampus, M-cholinoreceptor antagonists decreased the functional connectivity of neurons in all the animals, enhanced the effect of outer sources in self-controlling animals and did not change the influence of outer sources in cats with the mixed impulsive/self-controlling reactions. The influence from outer sources was decreased in cats of the first group and increased in second group. The results suggest a decrease in the functional connectivity and association characteristics in the cortical and hippocampal neuronal networks under conditions of cholinergic deficit during solving complex cognitive tasks.

Muscarinic receptors: do they have a role in the pathology and treatment of schizophrenia?

The high affinity of antipsychotic drugs for the dopamine D2 receptor focused attention onto the role of these receptors in the genesis of psychoses and the pathology of schizophrenia. However, psychotic symptoms are only one aspect of the complex symptom profile associated with schizophrenia. Therefore, research continues into other neurochemical systems and their potential roles in key features associated with schizophrenia. Modulating the cholinergic system in attempts to treat schizophrenia predates specific neurochemical hypotheses of the disorder. Cholinergic modulation has progressed from the use of coma therapy, through the use of anti-cholinergic drugs to control side-effects of older (typical) antipsychotic medications, to the development of drugs designed to specifically activate selected muscarinic receptors. This review presents data implicating a decrease in muscarinic receptors, particularly the M1 receptor, in the pathology of schizophrenia and explores the potential physiological consequences of such a change, drawing on data available from muscarinic receptor knockout mice as well as clinical and pre-clinical pharmacology. The body of evidence presented suggests that deficits in muscarinic receptors are associated with some forms of schizophrenia and that targeting these receptors could prove to be of therapeutic benefit to patients with the disorder.

The role of muscarinic receptor subtypes in acetylcholine release from urinary bladder obtained from muscarinic receptor knockout mouse.

We investigated the subtype of prejunctional muscarinic receptors associated with inhibition of acetylcholine (ACh) released from the mouse bladder. We measured endogenous ACh release in the bladder obtained from the wild-type mice and muscarinic 1-5 (M1-M5) receptor knockout (KO) mice. Electrical field stimulation increased ACh release in all bladder preparations obtained from wild-type and M1-M5 receptor KO mice. The amount of ACh released from M1-M3 and M5 receptor KO mice was equal to that in the wild-type mice. In contrast, the amount of electrical field stimulation-induced ACh release in M4 receptor KO mice was significantly larger than that in the wild-type mice, but the extent of increase was small. Atropine increased electrical field stimulation-induced ACh release to levels found in wild-type mice in all M1-M5 receptor KO mice. In M2/M4 receptor double KO mice, the amount of electrical field stimulation-induced ACh release was equivalent to that in the M4 receptor KO mice. The cholinergic component of electrical field stimulation-induced contraction (in the presence of alpha,beta-methylene ATP) in the detrusor of M4 receptor KO mice was no different from that in the detrusor of wild-type mice. M4 receptor immunoreactivity was located between smooth muscle cells, colocalized with choline acetyltransferase immunoreactivity. These results indicate that the prejunctional inhibitory muscarinic receptors are of the M4 and non-M2 receptor subtypes. The nature of the non-M2 receptors remains unknown.

Prenatal exposure to nicotine with associated in utero hypoxia decreased fetal brain muscarinic mRNA in the rat.

Prenatal exposure to nicotine can be associated with fetal abnormal development and brain damage. This study determined the effect of administration of nicotine with associated in utero hypoxia in maternal rats from early, middle, and late gestation on fetal blood hemoglobin, and expression of cholinergic receptor subtypes in the fetal brain. Our results demonstrated that maternal subcutaneous nicotine from the early gestation increased fetal hemoglobin and hematocrit, associated with reduction of PO(2). Although exposure to nicotine during late gestation had no effects on fetal brain weight, nicotine administration from the early gestation significantly decreased fetal brain muscarinic receptor (M1, M2, M3, and M4) mRNA expression, associated with restricted brain growth. Nicotine-altered muscarinic receptor subtype expression in the fetal forebrain and hindbrain showed regional differences. In addition, there were gestational differences for fetal brain muscarinic suppression by prenatal nicotine. Together, the results demonstrate that nicotine-induced in utero hypoxia is associated with poor development of muscarinic receptors in the fetal brain and restricted brain growth, and that either prolonged prenatal exposure to nicotine or critical "window" period for the brain development during pregnancy may play a role in prenatal nicotine-induced fetal muscarinic-receptor deficiency in the fetal brain.

Interactions between neurons in the frontal cortex and hippocampus in cats trained to select reinforcements of different value in conditions of cholinergic deficiency.

An operant food-related conditioned reflex was developed in six cats by the "active choice" protocol: short-latency pedal presses were followed by presentation of low-quality reinforcement (bread-meat mix), while long-latency pedal presses were followed by presentation of high-quality reinforcement (meat). Animals differed in terms of their food-procuring strategies, displaying "self-control," "ambivalence," or "impulsivity." Multineuron activity was recorded from the frontal cortex and hippocampus (field CA3). Cross-correlation analysis of interneuronal interactions within (local networks) and between (distributed networks) study structures showed that the numbers of interneuronal interactions in both local and distributed networks were maximal in animals with "self-control." On the background of systemic administration of the muscarinic cholinoreceptor blockers scopolamine and trihexyphenidyl, the numbers of interneuronal interactions decreased, while "common source" influences increased. This correlated with impairment of the reproduction of the selected strategy, primarily affecting the animals' self-controlled behavior. These results show that the "self-control" strategy is determined by the organization of local and distributed networks in the frontal cortex and hippocampus.