Evidence of traditionality of Brazilian medicinal plants: The case studies of Stryphnodendron adstringens (Mart.) Coville (barbatimão) barks and Copaifera spp. (copaíba) oleoresin in wound healing.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes the potential of plants used in secular traditional medicine and considers this an important source of evidence to assess their effectiveness and safety. Brazil is rich in biodiversity and traditional uses based on the Amerindian culture. However, many processes started with the arrival of the Portuguese in the year 1500. The successive economic cycles, for example, led to destruction of native vegetation and an intense cultural erosion. As a consequence, the information about the use of plants in the past centuries are dispersed and without interpretation. In this study a methodology to evidence the traditionality of Brazilian plants was demonstrated using data about barbatimão barks (Stryphnodendron adstringens (Mart.) Coville - Fabaceae) and Copaiba oleoresin (Copaifera spp. - Fabaceae) in wound healing, was established. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Data about use of the plants were recovered from bibliography published between 1576 and 2011. The books (101) were classified using weights, considering the date of publication and the source of Information. Older books that describe primary information received weight 10, while books written more recently and with secondary information received weight 0.4. A score for each category of medicinal use was calculated based on the books weights and the frequency of citation. A review about the current use of both plants was also performed from ethnobotanical studies published in journals. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The traditional secular use of barks of barbatimão and oleoresin of copaiba to treat wounds was confirmed based on the historic bibliographic research. The most frequent use of barbatimão in a timeline of 500 years of Brazil's history, was as astringent, whereas for copaíba was as healing of skin and mucosal lesions. The continuous and current use of these plants to treat wounds, confirmed by recent ethnobotanical studies, is an indicative of the resilience of these remedies and their effectiveness. CONCLUSION: The use of preparations containing barbatimão barks and copaiba oleoresin can be considered effective in the treatment of wounds. Nonetheless, it is necessary to improve the quality of the formulas as established by WHO.

Towards the identification of plant and animal binders on Australian stone knives.

There is limited information regarding the nature of plant and animal residues used as adhesives, fixatives and pigments found on Australian Aboriginal artefacts. This paper reports the use of FTIR in combination with the chemometric tools principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering (HC) for the analysis and identification of Australian plant and animal fixatives on Australian stone artefacts. Ten different plant and animal residues were able to be discriminated from each other at a species level by combining FTIR spectroscopy with the chemometric data analysis methods, principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering (HC). Application of this method to residues from three broken stone knives from the collections of the South Australian Museum indicated that two of the handles of knives were likely to have contained beeswax as the fixative whilst Spinifex resin was the probable binder on the third.

Skin sensitization and possible groupings for 'read across' for rosin based substances.

A series of chemically modified rosin resins have been tested for their potential to cause skin sensitization using the mouse LLNA. Where direct comparative evidence is available, the results of the mouse LLNA are consistent with previously obtained data using the GPMT. Reactions with sufficient fumaric acid or maleic anhydride lead to maleopimaric acid anhydride (an acid anhydride), and give a clear response of a strong sensitizer that definitely requires classification. This sensitization is probably immunologically distinct from that claimed for oxidized rosin. Esterification will deactivate acid anhydrides formed from reacting rosin with maleic anhydride or fumaric acid. However, with maleic anhydride, there remains material capable of inducing a marginal (but classifiable under current criteria) immune response after the rosin had been maleinated and esterified. If proposed potency criteria are used these substances would not be considered 'strong sensitizers'. This response may be a function of a greater solubility in vehicle of the esterified maleinated (or fumarated) rosin over directly esterified material. Solubility limitations in the case of gum rosin directly esterified with pentaerythritol mean that it is not classifiable. Decarboxylated rosin and the glycerol ester of tall oil rosin are adequately soluble, and are not classifiable according to EU criteria. Polymers formed from rosin are also not classifiable as sensitizers. These studies confirm the value of grouping substances for 'read across' and the groupings chosen under the US EPA High Production Volume (HPV) Challenge Program. They also confirm the difficulties involved in dealing scientifically when examining the problem of skin sensitization associated with rosin related substances whilst still meeting current EU regulatory criteria.

Total synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy combined with multivariate analysis: method for the classification of selected resins, oils, and protein-based media used in paintings.

Recent interest in the fluorescence of binding media and varnishes (proteins, oils, and resins) commonly used in paintings is based on the potential for discriminating these organic materials. A useful way of studying the presence of the broad-band fluorescence emissions found in these complex organic materials is fluorescence excitation emission spectroscopy. However, due to the presence of Raman and Rayleigh scattering which may necessitate correction or preprocessing for statistical analysis and visualization, an alternative approach has been adopted for the analysis of different samples of artist materials based on total synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy. Films of selected drying oils, glue, egg, and casein and the resins mastic, dammar, copal, and shellac were analyzed using total synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy, and an interpretation of the differences between spectra is given. A data reduction method based on the transformation of fluorescence contours extracted from total synchronous fluorescence from Cartesian to polar coordinates is presented and is followed by the comparison of data using multivariate analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis. Results suggest that the new method can be used to classify samples on the basis of their fluorescence spectra, clearly differentiating oils, resins, and protein-based media into groups.

Distinctions among conifer exudates by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

Proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectra have been recorded of exudates harvested from 12 species from the family Araucariaceae, 40 from the Cupressaceae, and one from the Podocarpaceae. These spectra were compared with the spectra previously recorded of 82 species from the Pinaceae. These four families together represent all major groups of extant, resin-bearing conifers. A common set of 10 COSY two-dimensional cross-peaks generally define samples from the Pinaceae, a different set of six peaks define the Araucariaceae, and yet a third set of 10 peaks define the Cupressaceae, with a few exceptions. It is important that proton spectra can distinguish the Araucariaceae and the Cupressaceae, since carbon-13 spectra do not. The one-dimensional peaks not only confirm these familial distinctions but also often characterize genus and species uniquely.

Proton nuclear magnetic resonance characterization of resins from the family pinaceae.

Proton magnetic resonance spectra were recorded for solutions of resinous materials harvested from 82 species in seven genera of the gymnospermous plant family Pinaceae. Data were recorded in both one and two (COSY) dimensions. Approximately 11 peaks in the 1D spectra and 10 cross-peaks in the 2D spectra were present in almost all pinacean spectra, providing a familial diagnostic. Some 40 1D peaks or peak clusters and 60 2D cross-peaks or clusters were considered significant and are reported, when present, for all species. Whereas previous solid-state 13C data were diagnostic primarily at the family level, the patterns of 1D and 2D peaks may provide diagnostic information at the genus and species levels. These spectra constitute the first broad use of 1H NMR to study plant exudates in general and to provide taxonomic characterization in particular.

Taxonomic and chemical relationships revealed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectra of plant exudates.

Exudates collected from 65 species of gymnosperms and angiosperms were examined by solid-state carbon-13 (13C) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Diagnostic criteria were developed to distinguish resins, gums, and gum resins. The typology generated from the exudate spectra generally follows current taxonomic classifications, suggesting that 13C NMR spectroscopy may have applications in exudate identification, at least at the familial level, and in some cases at the generic or specific levels.

[Resins polymerizing at low temperatures. I. Different families and principle technics]. / Les résines polymérisant à froid. I. Différentes familles et principes techniques.

For pathologists, tissue processing and analysis require good preservation of both the shape (morphology) and the content of the cells (antigens, nucleic acids). Low temperature embedding resins are the only inclusion substrate which allows both a fine morphological analysis and good preservation of antigens and nucleic acids. Automatic the technical processes and simplified protocols now allow the introduction of low temperature embedding resins in diagnostic procedures.