Oogenesis and embryogenesis inhibition induced by two new ethyl-carbamates in the cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus.

The purpose of this work was to contribute to the understanding of the mechanism of action of two new ixodicides. The histological and ultrastructural alterations of Rhipicephalus microplus oocytes (San Alfonso strain) treated with two new ethyl-carbamates (ethyl-4-bromophenyl carbamate and ethyl-4-chlorophenyl carbamate) by the adult immersion test were evaluated by light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The effects of the carbamates on embryogenesis in eggs were evaluated by fluorescence microscopy using DAPI staining. Both ethyl-carbamates inhibited the maturation of most oocytes and induced a concentration-dependent decrease (r2  = 0.5, p < 0.05) in the embryonation percentage in the small number of eggs oviposited by treated ticks. Evident ultrastructural alterations were observed in the oocytes from ticks exposed to the ethyl-carbamates, including modification of the chorion structure, myelinic bodies and autophagic vacuoles that were associated with degenerated organelles (mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and yolk granules), nucleolus fragmentation and chromatin clumping in germinal vesicles. In conclusion, these ethyl-carbamates affect the reproductive potential of R. microplus due to their negative effects on oogenesis and their repercussions for embryonic development.

Expression dynamics of autophagy-related genes in the cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus during embryonic development and under increasing larval starvation.

Rhipicephalus microplus is a hematophagous ectoparasite that significantly affects parasitized cattle. As a one-host tick its entire life cycle consists of free-living and parasitic forms. Its extraordinary ability to survive during prolonged off-host periods has been related to the process of cytoplasmic degradation called autophagy. In order to deepen our understanding of this process during R. microplus non-parasitic stages, we determined the expression dynamics of a set of five autophagy-related genes (ATG genes) during embryonic development and over an increasing larval starvation period of 50 days. We found two apparent successive waves of ATG genes transcriptional activation, which paralleled key embryonic changes such as cellularization and organogenesis, as well as nutrient utilization. Moreover, during increasing larval starvation, ATG genes were up-regulated cyclically every 10-15 days. Taken together, our results suggest that autophagy is playing a major role in embryo development and energy metabolism during starvation in R. microplus.

The dynamics of energy metabolism in the tick embryo / A dinâmica do metabolismo energético em embriões de carrapato

Abstract The cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus is an ectoparasite capable of transmitting a large number of pathogens, causing considerable losses in the cattle industry, with substantial damage to livestock. Over the years, important stages of its life cycle, such as the embryo, have been largely ignored by researchers. Tick embryogenesis has been typically described as an energy-consuming process, sustaining cell proliferation, differentiation, and growth. During the embryonic stage of arthropods, there is mobilization of metabolites of maternal origin for the development of organs and tissues of the embryo. Glycogen resynthesis in late embryogenesis is considered as an effective indicator of embryonic integrity. In the cattle tick R.(B. (B.) microplus, glycogen resynthesis is sustained by protein degradation through the gluconeogenesis pathway at the end of the embryonic period. Despite recent advancements in research on tick energy metabolism at the molecular level, the dynamics of nutrient utilization during R. (B.) microplus embryogenesis is still poorly understood. The present review aims to describe the regulatory mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolism during maternal-zygotic transition and identify possible new targets for the development of novel drugs and other control measures against R. (B.) microplus infestations.

Resumo O carrapato bovino Rhipicephalus (B.) microplus é um ectoparasita capaz de transmitir diversos patógenos, sendo responsável por grandes perdas na pecuária pelos danos causados ao gado. Atualmente, muitos estudos têm negligenciado fases importantes do ciclo de vida deste parasita, como a fase embrionária. A embriogênese é classicamente descrita como um processo que demanda um consumo de energia, possibilitando a proliferação celular, diferenciação e crescimento. Além disso, em artrópodes, o estágio da embriogênese é caracterizado pela mobilização de metabolitos de origem materna para o desenvolvimento de novos tecidos e órgãos. A ressíntese de glicogênio no final da embriogênese tem sido descrita em diversas espécies de artrópodes, sendo considerada um indicador de integridade do embrião. No caso do R. (B.) microplus a ressíntese de glicogênio é sustentada pela degradação de proteínas durante a gliconeogênese, no terço final da embriogênese. Apesar dos recentes avanços, no estudo molecular e do metabolismo energético, os mecanismos envolvidos na dinâmica da utilização de diferentes substratos energéticos durante a embriogênese do carrapato R. (B.) microplus ainda é pouco entendido. Diante deste panorama, estudos que descrevam a regulação destes mecanismos e da associação do metabolismo de carboidratos com a transição materno zigótica, pode auxiliar na busca de novos alvos para o desenvolvimento de novos acaricidas e outras intervenções para o controle infestações de R. (B.) microplus.

The dynamics of energy metabolism in the tick embryo.

The cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus is an ectoparasite capable of transmitting a large number of pathogens, causing considerable losses in the cattle industry, with substantial damage to livestock. Over the years, important stages of its life cycle, such as the embryo, have been largely ignored by researchers. Tick embryogenesis has been typically described as an energy-consuming process, sustaining cell proliferation, differentiation, and growth. During the embryonic stage of arthropods, there is mobilization of metabolites of maternal origin for the development of organs and tissues of the embryo. Glycogen resynthesis in late embryogenesis is considered as an effective indicator of embryonic integrity. In the cattle tick R.(B. (B.) microplus, glycogen resynthesis is sustained by protein degradation through the gluconeogenesis pathway at the end of the embryonic period. Despite recent advancements in research on tick energy metabolism at the molecular level, the dynamics of nutrient utilization during R. (B.) microplus embryogenesis is still poorly understood. The present review aims to describe the regulatory mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolism during maternal-zygotic transition and identify possible new targets for the development of novel drugs and other control measures against R. (B.) microplus infestations.

Non-classical gluconeogenesis-dependent glucose metabolism in Rhipicephalus microplus embryonic cell line BME26.

In this work we evaluated several genes involved in gluconeogenesis, glycolysis and glycogen metabolism, the major pathways for carbohydrate catabolism and anabolism, in the BME26 Rhipicephalus microplus embryonic cell line. Genetic and catalytic control of the genes and enzymes associated with these pathways are modulated by alterations in energy resource availability (primarily glucose). BME26 cells in media were investigated using three different glucose concentrations, and changes in the transcription levels of target genes in response to carbohydrate utilization were assessed. The results indicate that several genes, such as glycogen synthase (GS), glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), and glucose-6 phosphatase (GP) displayed mutual regulation in response to glucose treatment. Surprisingly, the transcription of gluconeogenic enzymes was found to increase alongside that of glycolytic enzymes, especially pyruvate kinase, with high glucose treatment. In addition, RNAi data from this study revealed that the transcription of gluconeogenic genes in BME26 cells is controlled by GSK-3. Collectively, these results improve our understanding of how glucose metabolism is regulated at the genetic level in tick cells.

An ethnopharmacological assessment of the use of plants against parasitic diseases in humans and animals.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Ethnobotanical surveys are detecting an increasing frequency of exotic plant species in pharmacopeias, which has led researchers to investigate the role of such species in traditional medical systems. According to the diversification hypothesis, exotic species are included to complete pharmacopeias, i.e., to treat diseases for which no native species are known, thus broadening the scope of the plant repertoire. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The present study was conducted at two rural communities in northeastern Brazil aiming at a survey of the plants known or used by the population to treat endo- and ectoparasitic diseases in humans and animals. In addition, plant extracts exhibiting acaricide activity were assessed using the engorged female immersion and larval packet tests (LPT). RESULTS: The results of the present study showed a tendency for native species to be used against ectoparasites and exhibit a broader scope of use compared to exotic species. In turn, exotic species were predominantly indicated to treat diseases caused by endoparasites, although there was an overlap of native and exotic species relative to some therapeutic purpose, e.g., ticks. Only two of the plant species tested exhibited acaricide activity (Nicotiana glauca Graham and Croton blanchetianus Baill.), and in both cases, the activity was weak. CONCLUSION: The ethnobotanical data do not fully support the suggested hypothesis. Overall, the wide versatility of exotic species was not exclusively used to treat parasitic diseases in humans and animals. In addition, the selection of acaricide plants based on the ethnopharmacological study generated uninteresting results.

The embryogenesis of the tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus: the establishment of a new chelicerate model system.

Chelicerates, which include spiders, ticks, mites, scorpions, and horseshoe crabs, are members of the phylum Arthropoda. In recent years, several molecular experimental studies of chelicerates have examined the embryology of spiders; however, the embryology of other groups, such as ticks (Acari: Parasitiformes), has been largely neglected. Ticks and mites are believed to constitute a monophyletic group, the Acari. Due to their blood-sucking activities, ticks are also known to be vectors of several diseases. In this study, we analyzed the embryonic development of the cattle tick, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari: Ixodidae). First, we developed an embryonic staging system consisting of 14 embryonic stages. Second, histological analysis and antibody staining unexpectedly revealed the presence of a population of tick cells with similar characteristics to the spider cumulus. Cumulus cell populations also exist in other chelicerates; these cells are responsible for the breaking of radial symmetry through bone morphogenetic protein signaling. Third, it was determined that the posterior (opisthosomal) embryonic region of R. microplus is segmented. Finally, we identified the presence of a transient ventral midline furrow and the formation and regression of a fourth leg pair; these features may be regarded as hallmarks of late tick embryogenesis. Importantly, most of the aforementioned features are absent from mite embryos, suggesting that mites and ticks do not constitute a monophyletic group or that mites have lost these features. Taken together, our findings provide fundamental common ground for improving knowledge regarding tick embryonic development, thereby facilitating the establishment of a new chelicerate model system.

Inorganic polyphosphates regulate hexokinase activity and reactive oxygen species generation in mitochondria of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus embryo.

The physiological roles of polyphosphates (poly P) recently found in arthropod mitochondria remain obscure. Here, the possible involvement of poly P with reactive oxygen species generation in mitochondria of Rhipicephalus microplus embryos was investigated. Mitochondrial hexokinase and scavenger antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione reductase were assayed during embryogenesis of R. microplus. The influence of poly P3 and poly P15 were analyzed during the period of higher enzymatic activity during embryogenesis. Both poly Ps inhibited hexokinase activity by up to 90% and, interestingly, the mitochondrial membrane exopolyphosphatase activity was stimulated by the hexokinase reaction product, glucose-6-phosphate. Poly P increased hydrogen peroxide generation in mitochondria in a situation where mitochondrial hexokinase is also active. The superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione reductase activities were higher during embryo cellularization, at the end of embryogenesis and during embryo segmentation, respectively. All of the enzymes were stimulated by poly P3. However, superoxide dismutase was not affected by poly P15, catalase activity was stimulated only at high concentrations and glutathione reductase was the only enzyme that was stimulated in the same way by both poly Ps. Altogether, our results indicate that inorganic polyphosphate and mitochondrial membrane exopolyphosphatase regulation can be correlated with the generation of reactive oxygen species in the mitochondria of R. microplus embryos.

The conserved role of the AKT/GSK3 axis in cell survival and glycogen metabolism in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus embryo tick cell line BME26.

BACKGROUND: Tick embryogenesis is a metabolically intensive process developed under tightly controlled conditions and whose components are poorly understood. METHODS: In order to characterize the role of AKT (protein kinase B) in glycogen metabolism and cell viability, glycogen determination, identification and cloning of an AKT from Rhipicephalus microplus were carried out, in parallel with experiments using RNA interference (RNAi) and chemical inhibition. RESULTS: A decrease in glycogen content was observed when AKT was chemically inhibited by 10-DEBC treatment, while GSK3 inhibition by alsterpaullone had an opposing effect. RmAKT ORF is 1584-bp long and encodes a polypeptide chain of 60.1 kDa. Phylogenetic and sequence analyses showed significant differences between vertebrate and tick AKTs. Either AKT or GSK3 knocked down cells showed a 70% reduction in target transcript levels, but decrease in AKT also reduced glycogen content, cell viability and altered cell membrane permeability. However, the GSK3 reduction promoted an increase in glycogen content. Additionally, either GSK3 inhibition or gene silencing had a protective effect on BME26 viability after exposure to ultraviolet radiation. R. microplus AKT and GSK3 were widely expressed during embryo development. Taken together, our data support an antagonistic role for AKT and GSK3, and strongly suggest that such a signaling axis is conserved in tick embryos, with AKT located upstream of GSK3. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: The AKT/GSK3 axis is conserved in tick in a way that integrates glycogen metabolism and cell survival, and exhibits phylogenic differences that could be important for the development of novel control methods.

Primary embryonic cells of Rhipicephalus microplus and Amblyomma cajennense ticks as a substrate for the development of Borrelia burgdorferi (strain G39/40).

Borrelia burgdorferi, the agent of Lyme borreliosis, is a spirochetes transmitted by ticks to humans and animals. Its cultivation in vitro in tick cells allows studies of its biology and provides methodology for future research in Brazil, and for the isolation of Borrelia spp. We examined in vitro the characteristics of embryonic cells of Rhipicephalus microplus and Amblyomma cajennense in cell culture and investigated the suitability of embryonic cells as a substrate for cultivation of B. burgdorferi. Subcultures were prepared from primary cultures of embrionary cells of R. microplus and A. cajennense maintained in Leibovitz's (L-15) complete medium at 28 ºC and 31 ºC, respectively. When a monolayer had formed, the L-15 was replaced with Barbour-Stoener-Kelly medium for experiments to infect cell cultures with B. burgdorferi. After 72 hours of cultivation, the spirochetes were counted using an inverted phase contrast microscope and dark-field illumination (400×). Survival, multiplication and the adherence of B. burgdorferi for embryonic cells of R. microplus and A. cajennense were observed. B. burgdorferi cultured with embryonic cells of R. microplus grew on average to a density (final count) of 2.4 × 10(7) spirochetes/mL, whereas in cell-free culture, an average of 2.5 × 10(7) spirochetes/mL were counted. When cultivated with A. cajennense cells, the final count of spirochetes was on average 1.7 × 10(7) spirochetes/mL, while spirochetes cultured under cell-free conditions replicated on average of 2.2 × 10(7) spirochetes/mL. Similar results were observed in the final count of Spirochetes cultivated in cells of R. microplus and A. cajennense, when compared with cell-free control. These results demonstrated that cells of R. microplus and A. cajennense have the potential to be used as growth substrate for B. burgdorferi in the study of its interaction with host cells.

Primary embryonic cells of Rhipicephalus microplus and Amblyomma cajennense ticks as a substrate for the development of Borrelia burgdorferi (strain G39/40) / Células primárias embrionárias do carrapato Rhipicephalus microplus e Amblyomma cajennense como substrato para desenvolvimento de Borrelia burgdorferi (Cepa G39/40)

Borrelia burgdorferi, the agent of Lyme borreliosis, is a spirochetes transmitted by ticks to humans and animals. Its cultivation in vitro in tick cells allows studies of its biology and provides methodology for future research in Brazil, and for the isolation of Borrelia spp. We examined in vitro the characteristics of embryonic cells of Rhipicephalus microplus and Amblyomma cajennense in cell culture and investigated the suitability of embryonic cells as a substrate for cultivation of B. burgdorferi. Subcultures were prepared from primary cultures of embrionary cells of R. microplus and A. cajennense maintained in Leibovitz's (L-15) complete medium at 28 ºC and 31 ºC, respectively. When a monolayer had formed, the L-15 was replaced with Barbour-Stoener-Kelly medium for experiments to infect cell cultures with B. burgdorferi. After 72 hours of cultivation, the spirochetes were counted using an inverted phase contrast microscope and dark-field illumination (400×). Survival, multiplication and the adherence of B. burgdorferi for embryonic cells of R. microplus and A. cajennense were observed. B. burgdorferi cultured with embryonic cells of R. microplus grew on average to a density (final count) of 2.4 × 10(7) spirochetes/mL, whereas in cell-free culture, an average of 2.5 × 10(7) spirochetes/mL were counted. When cultivated with A. cajennense cells, the final count of spirochetes was on average 1.7 × 10(7) spirochetes/mL, while spirochetes cultured under cell-free conditions replicated on average of 2.2 × 10(7) spirochetes/mL. Similar results were observed in the final count of Spirochetes cultivated in cells of R. microplus and A. cajennense, when compared with cell-free control. These results demonstrated that cells of R. microplus and A. cajennense have the potential to be used as growth substrate for B. burgdorferi in the study of its interaction with host cells.

Borrelia burgodorferi, o agente da borreliose de Lyme, é uma espiroqueta transmitida por carrapatos aos seres humanos e animais. Seu cultivo in vitro em células de carrapato permite estudos de sua biologia e propicia metodologia para futuras pesquisas no Brasil, para o isolamento de Borrelia spp. Nós examinamos in vitro as características de células embrionárias de Rhipicephalus microplus e Amblyomma cajennense, e a viabilidade de utilização dessas células embrionárias como um substrato para cultivo de B.burgdorferi. Subculturas foram preparadas a partir de culturas primárias de células embrionárias de R. microplus e A. cajennense mantidas em meio Leibovitz's (L-15) completo, a 28 ºC e 31 ºC, respectivamente. Com a formação da monocamada, o L-15 foi substituído pelo meio Barbour-Stoener-Kelly, para o experimento de infecção com B. burgdorferi nas culturas de células. Após 72 horas de cultivo, realizou-se a contagem das espiroquetas, as quais foram avaliadas sob microscópio invertido de contraste de fase e campo escuro (400×). Verificou-se a sobrevivência, a multiplicação e a aderência de B. burgdorferi em células embrionárias de R. microplus e A. cajennense. No estudo da cultura de B. burgdorferi com células embrionárias de R. microplus, observou-se, na contagem final, média de 2,4 × 10(7) espiroquetas/mL; no cultivo livre de células, verificou-se média de 2,5 × 10(7) espiroquetas/mL. No cultivo de A. cajennense, a contagem final de espiroquetas foi, em média, 1,7 × 10(7) espiroquetas/mL, enquanto que, para as cultivadas livres de células, se verificou média de 2,2 × 10(7) espiroquetas/mL. Resultado semelhante foi observado na contagem final de espiroquetas cultivadas em células de R. microplus e A. cajennense, quando comparado com o controle livre de células. Estes resultados demonstraram que células de R. microplus e A. cajennense têm o potencial para serem utilizadas como substrato para o crescimento de B. burgdorferi no estudo da interação com as células do hospedeiro.

Partial characterization of an atypical family I inorganic pyrophosphatase from cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus.

The present paper presents the partial characterization of a family I inorganic pyrophosphatase from the hard tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (BmPPase). The BmPPase gene was cloned from the tick embryo and sequenced. The deduced amino acid sequence shared high similarity with other eukaryotic PPases, on the other hand, BmPPase presented some cysteine residues non-conserved in other groups. This pyrophosphatase is inhibited by Ca(2+), and the inhibition is antagonized by Mg(2+), suggesting that the balance between free Ca(2+) and free Mg(2+) in the eggs could be involved in BmPPase activity control. We observed that the BmPPase transcripts are present in the fat body, midgut and ovary of ticks, in two developmental stages (partially and fully engorged females). However, higher transcription amounts were found in ovary from fully engorged females. BmPPase activity was considerably abolished by the thiol reagent dithionitrobenzoic acid (DTNB), suggesting that cysteine residues are exposed in its structure. Therefore, these cysteine residues play a critical role in the structural stability of BmPPase. Molecular dynamics simulation analysis indicates that BmPPase is the first Family I PPase that could promote disulfide bonds between cysteine residues 138-339 and 167-295. Finally, we believe that these cysteine residues exposed in the BmPPase structure can play an important controlling role regarding enzyme activity, which would be an interesting mechanism of redox control. The results presented here also indicate that this enzyme can be involved in embryogenesis of this arthropod, and may be useful as a target in the development of new tick control strategies.

Metabolismo de biomoléculas na embriogênese do carrapato Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus / Metabolism of biomolecules in the embryogenesis of the tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus

Background: The hard tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus is an hematophagous ectoparasite that causes important economic losses in the cattle raising. The control of the parasite is usually accomplished through the use of acaricides. Even though these chemicals substances present effectiveness, their continuous use can lead to the selection of resistant parasites. When not used properly acaricides can cause environmental damages in addition to risks for animal and human health. Because of these drawbacks there are efforts to the development of alternatives control methods. The immunological control is a promissing method due to target specifi city, which increases the environmental and animal safety. The development of such approach relies on the discovery and characterization of molecules involved in the metabolism of the parasite different life stages. The embryogenesis is the stage where the metabolites of maternal origin are mobilized through catabolic and anabolic pathways necessary for the development of the embryo. The study of the substrates and enzymes involved in metabolic pathways of the embryogenesis allows the directed search to potential antigens to the development of an anti-R. microplus vaccine. Review: The embryo, during its development, passes through the stages of a sincicial blastoderm, celular blastoderm and segmentation, and both morfological changes and energy sources mobilization are related. Lipids are the major energetic source to the cellular blastoderm formation. Up to cellularization stage and after embryo segmentation, sugars are the main metabolite required. It supports that tick embryogenesis occurs with two distinct phases regarding glucose utilization by the embryo. In the initial phase, until the formation of the celular blastoderm, there is the utilization of the maternal energetic source stored in oocytes, like glycogen. After segmentation, until larval hatching, the embryo performs gluconeogenesis through non-glucidic compounds to obtain the energy input required for its metabolism. Therewith occurs the activation of the glycolytic and gluconeogenic pathways to provide glucose to the developing embryo. Due to the high levels of glucose available, it is suggested that the insulin pathway is active and be conserved in R. microplus, as previously described for other organisms. Glycogen accumulation observed throughout tick embryogenesis could be a response to an endogenous insulin-like signal. During gluconeogenesi's amino acids stored in the storage proteins of the yolk granules are enzymatically mobilized to supply the metabolic energy required for the embryo development. In this context, three peptidases involved in the degradation of yolk proteins in eggs and one peptidase in larvae were characterized, and demonstrate the importance of the use of amino acids in this phase of the tick's life. Another metabolite involved in the development of the embryo is water, whose homeostasis must be mantained in the parasitic and environmental stages of the R. microplus's life. The function of water maintenance in eggs is particularly important for embryo development. Conclusion: The study of the energetic pathways important to the metabolism of R. microplus's embryo is a promissing way for development of control methods. In this context different enzymes involved in providing energetic substrates for the embryogenesis have been indentified, characterized and can be used as targets in the immunological control of the tick.Proteinases characterized from R. microplus eggs, BYC and VTDCE, were tested as antigens to immunize bovines and provided to be immunoprotective against the parasite. Other enzymes also showed a potential to be used as targets in an anti-R.microplus vaccine.

Structural and biochemical characterization of a recombinant triosephosphate isomerase from Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus.

Triosephosphate isomerase (TIM) is an enzyme with a role in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis by catalyzing the interconversion between glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. This enzyme has been used as a target in endoparasite drug development. In this work we cloned, expressed, purified and studied kinetic and structural characteristics of TIM from tick embryos, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (BmTIM). The Km and Vmax of the recombinant BmTIM with glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as substrate, were 0.47 mM and 6031 µmol min⁻¹ mg protein⁻¹, respectively. The resolution of the diffracted crystal was estimated to be 2.4 Å and the overall data showed that BmTIM is similar to other reported dimeric TIMs. However, we found that, in comparison to other TIMs, BmTIM has the highest content of cysteine residues (nine cysteine residues per monomer). Only two cysteines could make disulfide bonds in monomers of BmTIM. Furthermore, BmTIM was highly sensitive to the action of the thiol reagents dithionitrobenzoic acid and methyl methane thiosulfonate, suggesting that there are five cysteines exposed in each dimer and that these residues could be employed in the development of species-specific inhibitors.

Effect of GSK-3 activity, enzymatic inhibition and gene silencing by RNAi on tick oviposition and egg hatching.

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) is classically described as a key enzyme involved in glycogen metabolism in mammals. It has been shown to be highly conserved among several organisms, mainly in the catalytic domain region. This enzyme has already been described in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus and the ovaries of females appeared to be the major site of GSK-3 transcription. The treatment with GSK-3 specific inhibitor (alsterpaullone, bromo-indirubin-oxime 6 and indirubin-3-oxime) caused a reduction in oviposition and egg hatching in completely engorged female ticks. The effect was more pronounced in partially engorged females when alsterpaullone was administrated by artificial capillary feeding. Moreover, GSK-3 gene silencing by RNAi in partially engorged females reduced significantly both oviposition and hatching. The study of tick embryogenesis and proteins that participate in this process has been suggested as an important means for the development of novel strategies for parasite control. GSK-3 is an essential protein involved in embryonic processes and for this reason it has already been suggested as a possible antigen candidate for tick control.

Antimicrobial activity in the tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus eggs: Cellular localization and temporal expression of microplusin during oogenesis and embryogenesis.

Arthropods display different mechanisms to protect themselves against infections, among which antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) play an important role, acting directly against invader pathogens. We have detected several factors with inhibitory activity against Candida albicans and Micrococcus luteus on the surface and in homogenate of eggs of the tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus. One of the anti-M. luteus factors of the egg homogenate was isolated to homogeneity. Analysis by electrospray mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) revealed that it corresponds to microplusin, an AMP previously isolated from the cell-free hemolymph of R. (B.) microplus. Reverse transcription (RT) quantitative polymerase chain reactions (qPCR) showed that the levels of microplusin mRNA gradually increase along ovary development, reaching an impressive highest value three days after the adult females have dropped from the calf and start oviposition. Interestingly, the level of microplusin mRNA is very low in recently laid eggs. An enhance of microplusin gene expression in eggs is observed only nine days after the onset of oviposition, achieving the highest level just before the larva hatching, when the level of expression decreases once again. Fluorescence microscopy analysis using an anti-microplusin serum revealed that microplusin is present among yolk granules of oocytes as well as in the connecting tube of ovaries. These results, together to our previous data, suggest that microplusin may be involved not only in protection of adult female hemocele, but also in protection of the female reproductive tract and embryos, what points this AMP as a considerable target for development of new methods to control R. (B.) microplus as well as the vector-borne pathogens.

Exogenous insulin stimulates glycogen accumulation in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus embryo cell line BME26 via PI3K/AKT pathway.

Ticks are obligatory blood-feeding arthropods and important vectors of both human and animal disease agents. Besides its metabolic role, insulin signaling pathway (ISP) is widely described as crucial for vertebrate and invertebrate embryogenesis, development and cell survival. In such cascade, Phosphatidylinositol 3-OH Kinase (PI3K) is hierarchically located upstream Protein Kinase B (PKB). To study the insulin-triggered pathway and its possible roles during embryogenesis we used a culture of embryonic Rhipicephalus microplus cells (BME26). Exogenous insulin elevated cell glycogen content in the absence of fetal calf serum (FCS) when compared to cells without treatment. Moreover, in the presence of PI3K inhibitors (Wortmannin or LY294002) these effects were blocked. We observed an increase in the relative expression level of PI3K's regulatory subunit (p85), as determined by qRT-PCR. In the presence of PI3K inhibitors these effects on transcription were also reversed. Additionally, treatment with Wortmannin increased the expression level of the insulin-regulated downstream target glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3beta). The p85 subunit showed elevated transcription levels in ovaries from fully engorged females, but was differentially expressed during tick embryogenesis. These results strongly suggest the presence of an insulin responsive machinery in BME26 cells, and its correlation with carbohydrate/glycogen metabolism also during embryogenesis.

Exopolyphosphatases in nuclear and mitochondrial fractions during embryogenesis of the hard tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus.

The present work evaluated polyphosphate (poly P) metabolism in nuclear and mitochondrial fractions during Rhipicephalus microplus embryogenesis. Nuclear poly P decreased and activity of exopolyphosphatase (PPX - polyphosphate-phosphohydrolases; EC 3.6.1.11) increased after embryo cellularization until the end of embryogenesis. The utilization of mitochondrial poly P content occurred between embryo cellularization and segmentation stages. Increasing amounts of total RNA extracted from eggs progressively enhanced nuclear PPX activity, whereas it exerted no effect on mitochondrial PPX activity. The decline in total poly P content after the 7th day of embryogenesis does not reflect the free P(i) increase and the total poly P chain length decrease after embryo cellularization. The Km(app) utilizing poly P(3), poly P(15) and poly P(65) as substrate was almost the same for the nuclear fraction (around 1muM), while the affinity for substrate in mitochondrial fraction was around 10 times higher for poly P(3) (Km(app) = 0.2muM) than for poly P(15) (Km(app) = 2.8muM) and poly P(65) (Km(app) = 3.6muM). PPX activity was stimulated by a factor of two by Mg2+ and Co2+ in the nuclear fraction and only by Mg2+ in the mitochondrial fraction. Heparin (20microg/mL) inhibited nuclear and mitochondrial PPX activity in about 90 and 95% respectively. Together, these data are consistent with the existence of two different PPX isoforms operating in the nuclei and mitochondria of the hard tick R. microplus with distinct metal dependence, inhibitor and activator sensitivities. The data also shed new light on poly P biochemistry during arthropod embryogenesis, opening new routes for future comparative studies on the physiological roles of different poly P pools distributed over cell compartments.

Cellular and molecular characterization of an embryonic cell line (BME26) from the tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus.

The cellular and molecular characteristics of a cell line (BME26) derived from embryos of the cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus were studied. The cells contained glycogen inclusions, numerous mitochondria, and vesicles with heterogeneous electron densities dispersed throughout the cytoplasm. Vesicles contained lipids and sequestered palladium meso-porphyrin (Pd-mP) and rhodamine-hemoglobin, suggesting their involvement in the autophagic and endocytic pathways. The cells phagocytosed yeast and expressed genes encoding the antimicrobial peptides (microplusin and defensin). A cDNA library was made and 898 unique mRNA sequences were obtained. Among them, 556 sequences were not significantly similar to any sequence found in public databases. Annotation using Gene Ontology revealed transcripts related to several different functional classes. We identified transcripts involved in immune response such as ferritin, serine proteases, protease inhibitors, antimicrobial peptides, heat shock protein, glutathione S-transferase, peroxidase, and NADPH oxidase. BME26 cells transfected with a plasmid carrying a red fluorescent protein reporter gene (DsRed2) transiently expressed DsRed2 for up to 5 weeks. We conclude that BME26 can be used to experimentally analyze diverse biological processes that occur in R. (B.) microplus such as the innate immune response to tick-borne pathogens.

A mitochondrial exopolyphosphatase activity modulated by phosphate demand in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus embryo.

This study describes Exopolyphosphatases (PPX) activity in mitochondria of Rhipicephalus microplus embryos. Mitochondria were isolated by differential centrifugation and PPX activity was analyzed through the hydrolysis of the substrate Polyphosphate (Poly P(15)). We investigated the influence of NADH, NAD+, Pi and ADP in a concentration range of 0.1-2.0 mM. Poly P hydrolysis was stimulated about two-fold by NADH and strongly inhibited by Pi. The PPX activity also increased in the presence of the respiratory substrates pyruvic and succinic acids, and this stimulatory effect disappeared upon addition of KCN. Mitochondrial respiration was activated by ADP using poly P as the only source of Pi. Endogenous poly P content changed following PPX activity during embryogenesis from the first up to 18th day of development. The data describe exopoly P as being modulated by Pi demand and related to energy supply during embryogenesis of hard ticks.