Effectiveness of hierarchical medical system and economic growth: based on China's urban vs. rural health perspectives.

Background: The hierarchical medical system is an important measure to promote equitable healthcare and sustain economic development. As the population's consumption level rises, the demand for healthcare services also increases. Based on urban and rural perspectives in China, this study aims to investigate the effectiveness of the hierarchical medical system and its relationship with economic development in China. Materials and methods: The study analyses panel data collected from Chinese government authorities, covering the period from 2009 to 2022. According to China's regional development policy, China is divided into the following regions: Eastern, Middle, Western, and Northeastern. Urban and rural component factors were downscaled using principal component analysis (PCA). The factor score formula combined with Urban-rural disparity rate (ΔD) were utilized to construct models for evaluating the effectiveness of the hierarchical medical system from an urban-rural perspective. A Vector Autoregression model is then constructed to analyze the dynamic relationship between the effects of the hierarchical medical system and economic growth, and to predict potential future changes. Results: Three principal factors were extracted. The contributions of the three principal factors were 38.132, 27.662, and 23.028%. In 2021, the hierarchical medical systems worked well in Henan (F = 47245.887), Shandong (F = 45999.640), and Guangdong (F = 42856.163). The Northeast (ΔDmax = 18.77%) and Eastern region (ΔDmax = 26.04%) had smaller disparities than the Middle (ΔDmax = 49.25%) and Western region (ΔDmax = 56.70%). Vector autoregression model reveals a long-term cointegration relationship between economic development and the healthcare burden for both urban and rural residents (ßurban = 3.09, ßrural = 3.66), as well as the number of individuals receiving health education (ß = -0.3492). Both the Granger causality test and impulse response analysis validate the existence of a substantial time lag between the impact of the hierarchical medical system and economic growth. Conclusion: Residents in urban areas are more affected by economic factors, while those in rural areas are more influenced by time considerations. The urban rural disparity in the hierarchical medical system is associated with the level of economic development of the region. When formulating policies for economically relevant hierarchical medical systems, it is important to consider the impact of longer lags.

Outreach physiatry clinics in remote Manitoba communities: an economic cost analysis.

BACKGROUND: One in 5 people in Canada have a disability affecting daily activities, and, for rural patients, accessing lifelong physiatry care to improve function and manage symptoms requires complex and expensive travel. We compared the costs of new outreach physiatry clinics with those of conventional urban clinics in Manitoba. METHODS: Six outreach clinics were held from January 2018 to September 2019 in the remote communities of St. Theresa Point and Churchill, Manitoba. A general physiatry population was seen in these clinics, including patients with musculoskeletal and neurologic conditions seen in consultation and follow-up. We performed a societal cost-minimization analysis comparing outreach clinic costs to estimated costs of standard care at conventional outpatient clinics in Winnipeg. Outcomes of interest included direct costs to government health services and patients, and indirect opportunity cost of travel time. We calculated total costs, average cost per clinic visit and incremental costs for outreach clinics compared to conventional urban clinics. Costs were inflated to 2020 Canadian dollars. RESULTS: Thirty-one patients (48 visits) were seen at the outreach clinics. The total cost of providing outreach clinics, $33 136, was 21% of the estimated cost of standard care, $158 344. When only direct costs were included, outreach clinics cost an estimated 24% of conventional care costs. The average unit cost per outreach visit was $690, compared to $3299 per conventional visit, for an incremental cost of -$2609 per outreach visit. INTERPRETATION: An outreach physiatry visit in Manitoba cost an estimated 21% of a conventional urban outpatient visit, or 24% when only direct costs were included, with costs savings largely related to travel. Outreach physiatry care in this model provides substantial cost savings for the public health care system as the primary payer, and can reduce the travel cost burden for patients who do not have public travel funding.

Influence of Geographic Access on Surgical Center Readmissions After Index Congenital Heart Surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of geographic access to surgical center on readmission risk and burden in children after congenital heart surgery. STUDY DESIGN: Children <6 years old at discharge after congenital heart surgery (Risk Adjustment for Congenital Heart Surgery-1 score 2-6) were identified using Pediatric Health Information System data (46 hospitals, 2004-2015). Residential distance from the surgery center, calculated using ZIP code centroids, was categorized as <15, 15-29, 30-59, 60-119, and ≥120 miles. Rurality was defined using rural-urban commuting area codes. Geographic risk factors for unplanned readmissions to the surgical center and associated burden (total hospital length of stay [LOS], costs, and complications) were analyzed using multivariable regression. RESULTS: Among 59 696 eligible children, 19 355 (32%) had ≥1 unplanned readmission. The median LOS was 9 days (IQR 22) across the entire cohort. In those readmitted, median total costs were $31 559 (IQR $90 176). Distance from the center was inversely related but rurality was positively related to readmission risk. Among those readmitted, increased distance was associated with longer LOS, more complications, and greater costs. Compared with urban patients, highly rural patients were more likely to have an unplanned readmission but had fewer average readmission days. CONCLUSIONS: Geographic measures of access differentially affect readmission to the surgery center. Increased distance from the center was associated with fewer unplanned readmissions but more complications. Among those readmitted, the most isolated patients had the greatest readmission costs. Understanding the contribution of geographic access will aid in developing strategies to improve care delivery to this population.

Initiation of hepatitis C treatment in two rural Rwandan districts: a mobile clinic approach.

BACKGROUND: To eliminate hepatitis C, Rwanda is conducting national mass screenings and providing to people with chronic hepatitis C free access to Direct Acting Antivirals (DAAs). Until 2020, prescribers trained and authorized to initiate DAA treatment were based at district hospitals, and access to DAAs remains expensive and geographically difficult for rural patients. We implemented a mobile clinic to provide DAA treatment initiation at primary-level health facilities among people with chronic hepatitis C identified through mass screening campaigns in rural Kirehe and Kayonza districts. METHODS: The mobile clinic team was composed of one clinician authorized to manage hepatitis, one lab technician, and one driver. Eligible patients received same-day clinical consultations, counselling, laboratory tests and DAA initiation. Using clinical databases, registers, and program records, we compared the number of patients who initiated DAA treatment before and during the mobile clinic campaign. We assessed linkage to care during the mobile clinical campaign and assessed predictors of linkage to care. We also estimated the cost per patient of providing mobile services and the reduction in out-of-pocket costs associated with accessing DAA treatment through the mobile clinic rather than the standard of care. RESULTS: Prior to the mobile clinic, only 408 patients in Kirehe and Kayonza had been initiated on DAAs over a 25-month period. Between November 2019 and January 2020, out of 661 eligible patients with hepatitis C, 429 (64.9%) were linked to care through the mobile clinic. Having a telephone number and complete address recorded at screening were strongly associated with linkage to care. The cost per patient of the mobile clinic program was 29.36 USD, excluding government-provided DAAs. Providing patients with same-day laboratory tests and clinical consultation at primary-level health facilities reduced out-of-pocket expenses by 9.88 USD. CONCLUSION: The mobile clinic was a feasible strategy for providing rapid treatment initiation among people chronically infected by hepatitis C, identified through a mass screening campaign. Compared to the standard of care, mobile clinics reached more patients in a much shorter time. This low-cost strategy also reduced out-of-pocket expenditures among patients. However, long-term, sustainable care would require decentralization to the primary health-centre level.

Estimating the cost of implementing a facility and community score card for maternal and newborn care service delivery in a rural district in Uganda.

INTRODUCTION: This paper aimed at estimating the resources required to implement a community Score Card by a typical rural district health team in Uganda, as a mechanism for fostering accountability, utilization and quality of maternal and child healthcare service. METHODS: This costing analysis was done from the payer's perspective using the ingredients approach over five quarterly rounds of scoring between 2017 and 2018. Expenditure data was obtained from project records, entered and analyzed in Microsoft excel. Two scale-up scenarios, scenario one (considered cost inputs by the MakSPH research teams) and scenario two (considering cost inputs based on contextual knowledge from district implementing teams), were simulated to better understand the cost implications of integrating the Community Score Card (CSC) into a district health system. RESULTS: The total and average cost of implementing CSC for five quarterly rounds over a period of 18 months were USD 59,962 and USD 11,992 per round of scoring, respectively. Considering the six sub-counties (including one Town Council) in Kibuku district that were included in this analysis, the average cost of implementating the CSC in each sub-county was USD 1998 per scoring round. Scaling-up of the intervention across the entire district (included 22 sub-counties) under the first scenario would cost a total of USD 19,003 per scoring round. Under the second scaleup scenario, the cost would be lower at USD 7116. The total annual cost of scaling CSC in the entire district would be USD 76,012 under scenario one compared to USD 28,465 under scenario two. The main cost drivers identified were transportation costs, coordination and supervision costs, and technical support to supplement local implementers. CONCLUSION: Our analysis suggests that it is financially feasible to implement and scale-up the CSC initiative, as an accountability tool for enhancing service delivery. However, the CSC design and approach needs to be embedded within local systems and implemented in collaboration with existing stakeholders so as to optimise costs. A comprehensive economic analysis of the costs associated with transportation, involvement of the district teams in coordination, supervision as well as provision of technical support is necessary to determine the cost-effectiveness of the CSC approach.

Low-cost biofuel-powered autoclaving machine for use in rural health care centres.

Surgical site infections (SSIs) in developing countries have been linked to inadequate availability of sterilising equipment. Existing autoclaves are mostly unaffordable by rural healthcare practitioners, and when they managed to procure them, the electricity supply to power the autoclaves is epileptic. The solar-powered autoclave alternatives are too bulky with a very high initial cost. Hence, low-cost biofuel-powered autoclave becomes an attractive option, and this study sought to present the design, development and clinical evaluation of the device performance. With the global drive for the adoption of green energy, biofuel will not only reduce greenhouse gas emission but also provide revenue for local producers and reduce biomass associated health complications. The theoretical energy requirement for the sterilisation process was calculated. The standard pressure and temperature needed for sterilisation were tested to be 121 °C and 15 psi. The device was also clinically tested with Staphylococcus aureus bacteria obtained from the Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital using Brain heart Infusion Broth, MacConkey and Blood agar as cultured media. No bacteria growth was observed when the samples containing the bacteria colony were autoclaved by the designed autoclave and incubated at 37 °C for 2 d. Hence, the device met the mechanical and biological validation standards for effective sterilisation.

Analysis of the effect of serious illness medical insurance on relieving the economic burden of rural residents in China: a case study in Jinzhai County.

BACKGROUND: In 2003, China established a New Rural Cooperative Medical System (NRCMS) for rural residents to alleviate the burden of medical expenses among rural residents. However, its reimbursement for high medical costs was insufficient. Therefore, China gradually established the Serious Illness Insurance System (SIMIS) based on NRCMS. After receiving payment through NRCMS, patients in rural areas who met the requirements of SIMIS policy would receive a second payment for their high medical expenses. This study aimed to analyze the effect of the implementation of SIMIS on alleviating the economic burden of rural residents in Jinzhai County. METHODS: The study used the inpatient reimbursement data of NRCMS in Jinzhai County, Anhui Province, from 2013 to 2016. We adopted descriptive and regression discontinuity (RD) methods to analyze the payment effect of SIMIS. The RD analysis targeted patients (n = 7353) whose annual serious illness expenses were between CNY 10,000 (1414 USD) and CNY 30,000 (4242 USD), whereas the descriptive analysis was used for data of the patients compensated by SIMIS (n = 2720). RESULTS: The results of RD showed that the actual medical insurance payment proportion increased by about 2.5% (lwald = 0.025, P < 0.01), inside medical insurance self-payment proportion increased by about 2% (lwald = 0.020, P < 0.10), and outside medical insurance self-payment proportion decreased by about 1.6% (lwald = - 0.016, P < 0.05). The descriptive results showed that patients with serious illnesses mostly chose to go to a hospital outside the county. The annual average number of hospitalizations was 3.64. The reimbursement mainly came from the NRCMS. The payment amount of SIMIS was relatively small, and the out-of-pocket medical expenses were still high. CONCLUSION: The medical technology level of Jinzhai County could not meet the needs of patients with seriously illnesses, the number of beneficiaries of SIMIS was small, and the ability to relieve the burden of medical expenses of the rural residents was insufficient. The high out-of-pocket expenses increased the possibility that only people with good economic conditions could benefit from the reimbursement of SIMIS, resulting in inequity.

Rojiroti microfinance and child nutrition: a cluster randomised trial.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether Rojiroti microfinance, for poor Indian women, improves child nutrition. DESIGN: Cluster randomised trial. SETTING: Tolas (village communities) in Bihar State. PARTICIPANTS: Women and children under 5 years. INTERVENTIONS: With Rojiroti microfinance, women form self-help groups and save their money to provide loans to group members. After 6 months, they receive larger external loans. Tolas were randomised to receive Rojiroti immediately or after 18 months. OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary analysis compared the mean weight for height Z score (WHZ) of children under 5 years in the intervention versus control tolas who attended for weight and height measurement 18 months after randomisation. Secondary outcomes were weight for age Z score (WAZ), height for age Z score, mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), wasting, underweight and stunting. RESULTS: We randomised 28 tolas to each arm and collected data from 2469 children (1560 mothers) at baseline and 2064 children (1326 mothers) at follow-up. WHZ was calculated for 1718 children at baseline and 1377 (674 intervention and 703 control) at follow-up. At 18 months, mean WHZ was significantly higher for intervention (-1.02) versus controls (-1.37; regression coefficient adjusted for clustering ß=0.38, 95% CI 0.16 to 0.61, p=0.001). Significantly fewer children were wasted in the intervention group (122, 18%) versus control (200, 29%; OR=0.46, 95% CI 0.28 to 0.74, p=0.002). Mean WAZ was better in the intervention group (-2.13 vs -2.37; ß=0.27, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.43, p=0.001) as was MUAC (13.6 cm vs 13.4 cm; ß=0.22, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.40, p=0.02). In an analysis adjusting for baseline nutritional measures (259 intervention children and 300 control), only WAZ and % underweight showed significant differences in favour of the intervention. CONCLUSION: In marginalised communities in rural India, child nutrition was better in those who received Rojiroti microfinance, compared with controls. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT01845545.

[Urban and rural: differences in the diet of Argentine households according to income level and area of residence]. / Urbano y rural: diferencias en la alimentación de los hogares argentinos según nivel de ingreso y área de residencia.

The environment and the socioeconomic level are determinants of eating behavior because they affect availability, accessibility and food preferences. In order to describe the apparent consumption of food and the availability of energy and nutrients in urban and rural households in Argentina according to their income level, the 2004-2005 National Household Expenditure Survey was analyzed. The average apparent consumption of food and beverages was calculated in grams or milliliters of net weight per adult equivalent per day, for urban and rural households, and by household income per capita quintiles. Rural households made up 7% of the sample, and had a higher proportion of low-income families than urban households. There is different pattern of apparent consumption of food and beverages among rural and urban households in Argentina, and there are also differences between households according to the level of income in both environments. Knowing the content and magnitude of these contrasts is of great use in looking for strategies to improve the population's diet.

El entorno y el nivel socioeconómico son determinantes del comportamiento alimentario porque inciden en la disponibilidad, la accesibilidad y las preferencias alimentarias. Con el objetivo de describir el consumo aparente de alimentos y la disponibilidad de energía y nutrientes de hogares urbanos y rurales de la Argentina, según su nivel de ingresos, se analizó la Encuesta Nacional de Gastos de los Hogares 2004-2005. Se calculó el consumo aparente promedio de alimentos y bebidas en gramos o mililitros de peso neto por adulto equivalente por día, de hogares urbanos y rurales, y según quintil de ingresos per cápita del hogar. El 7% fueron hogares rurales, y presentaron mayor proporción de familias con bajos ingresos respecto a los urbanos. Existe un patrón de consumo aparente de alimentos y bebidas distinto entre hogares rurales y urbanos de Argentina, y además existen diferencias entre los hogares según el nivel de ingresos en ambos entornos. Conocer los contrastes y su magnitud es de gran utilidad para buscar estrategias tendientes a mejorar la alimentación de la población.

Identification of Factors Influencing Out-of-county Hospitalizations in the New Cooperative Medical Scheme.

Throughout the duration of the New Cooperative Medical Scheme (NCMS), it was found that an increasing number of rural patients were seeking out-of-county medical treatment, which posed a great burden on the NCMS fund. Our study was conducted to examine the prevalence of out-of-county hospitalizations and its related factors, and to provide a scientific basis for follow-up health insurance policies. A total of 215 counties in central and western China from 2008 to 2016 were selected. The total out-of-county hospitalization rate in nine years was 16.95%, which increased from 12.37% in 2008 to 19.21% in 2016 with an average annual growth rate of 5.66%. Its related expenses and compensations were shown to increase each year, with those in the central region being higher than those in the western region. Stepwise logistic regression reveals that the increase in out-of-county hospitalization rate was associated with region (X1), rural population (X2), per capita per year net income (X3), per capita gross domestic product (GDP) (X4), per capita funding amount of NCMS (X5), compensation ratio of out-of-county hospitalization cost (X6), per time average in-county (X7) and out-of-county hospitalization cost (X8). According to Bayesian network (BN), the marginal probability of high out-of-county hospitalization rate was as high as 81.7%. Out-of-county hospitalizations were directly related to X8, X3, X4 and X6. The probability of high out-of-county hospitalization obtained based on hospitalization expenses factors, economy factors, regional characteristics and NCMS policy factors was 95.7%, 91.1%, 93.0% and 88.8%, respectively. And how these factors affect out-of-county hospitalization and their interrelationships were found out. Our findings suggest that more attention should be paid to the influence mechanism of these factors on out-of-county hospitalizations, and the increase of hospitalizations outside the county should be reasonably supervised and controlled and our results will be used to help guide the formulation of proper intervention policies.

Short-Term Trends in Economic Burden and Catastrophic Costs of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Rural Southwest China.

OBJECTIVES: This study is aimed at gaining insights on the changing prevalence, economic burden, and catastrophic costs of diabetes in rural southwest China. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data were collected from two cross-sectional health interviews and examination surveys among individuals aged ≥ 35 years in rural Yunnan Province. A prevalence-based cost-of-illness method was used to estimate the cost of diabetes. Information about the participants' demographic characteristics and economic consequences of diabetes was obtained using a standard questionnaire. Fasting blood sugar levels were recorded for each study participant. RESULTS: During the study period, the overall prevalence of diabetes increased from 7.7% to 9.5% (P < 0.01) and the economic cost of diabetes increased 1.52-fold. The largest increases were observed in hospital costs (1.77-fold increase), while unit medication costs fell by 18.6%. Both in 2009 and in 2016, males had higher overall direct and indirect costs of diabetes than females (P < 0.05). Direct costs represented the largest component of economic cost of diabetes while hospital costs were the main drivers of direct medical expenditures, accounting for 66.2% of the total direct costs in 2009 and 75.9% in 2016. The incidence of household catastrophic health payment and household impoverishment due to diabetes was 24.0% and 17.9% in 2009 and 23.6% and 17.6% in 2016, respectively. These rates did not differ between the two survey years (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence and economic burden of diabetes increased substantially from 2009 to 2016 in rural southwest China. The findings underscore an urgent need for the government to invest more financial resources in the prevention of diabetes and improvement of access to affordable medication in rural southwest China.

Absolute Income, Income Inequality and the Subjective Well-Being of Migrant Workers in China: Toward an Understanding of the Relationship and Its Psychological Mechanisms.

No study has been conducted linking Chinese migrants' subjective well-being (SWB) with urban inequality. This paper presents the effects of income and inequality on their SWB using a total of 128,000 answers to a survey question about "happiness". We find evidence for a satiation point above which higher income is no longer associated with greater well-being. Income inequality is detrimental to well-being. Migrants report lower SWB levels where income inequality is higher, even after controlling for personal income, a large set of individual characteristics, and province dummies. We also find striking differences across socio-economic and geographic groups. The positive effect of income is more pronounced for rural and western migrants, and is shown to be significantly correlated with the poor's SWB but not for the well-being of more affluent respondents. Interestingly, high-income earners are more hurt by income inequality than low-income respondents. Moreover, compared with migrants in other regions, those in less developed Western China are found to be more averse to income inequality. Our results are quite robust to different specifications. We provide novel explanations for these findings by delving into psychological channels, including egalitarian preferences, social comparison concerns, expectations, perceived fairness concerns and perceived social mobility.

Evidence of overuse? Patterns of obstetric interventions during labour and birth among Australian mothers.

BACKGROUND: There is global concern for the overuse of obstetric interventions during labour and birth. Of particular concern is the increasing amount of mothers and babies experiencing morbidity and mortality associated with caesarean section compared to vaginal birth. In high-income settings, emerging evidence suggests that overuse of obstetric intervention is more prevalent among wealthier mothers with no medical need of it. In Australia, the rates of caesarean section and other obstetric interventions are rising. These rising rates of intervention have been mirrored by a decreasing rate of unassisted non-instrumental vaginal deliveries. In the context of rising global concern about rising caesarean section rates and the known health effects of caesarean section on mothers and children, we aim to better characterise the use of obstetric intervention in the state of Queensland, Australia by examining the characteristics of mothers receiving obstetric intervention. Identifying whether there is overuse of obstetric interventions within a population is critical to improving the quality, value and appropriateness of maternity care. METHODS: The association between demographic characteristics (at birth) and birth delivery type were compared with chi-square. The percentage of mothers based on their socioeconomic characteristics were reported and differences in percentages of obstetric interventions were compared. Multivariate analysis was undertaken using multiple logistic regression to assess the likelihood of receiving obstetric intervention and having a vaginal (non-instrumental) delivery after accounting for key clinical characteristics. RESULTS: Indigenous mothers, mothers in major cities and mothers in the wealthiest quintile all had higher percentages of all obstetric interventions and had the lowest percentages of unassisted (non-instrumental) vaginal births. These differences remained even after adjusting for other key sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: Differences in obstetric practice exist between economic, ethnic and geographical groups of mothers that are not attributable to medical or lifestyle risk factors. These differences may reflect health system, organisational and structural conditions and therefore, a better understanding of the non-clinical factors that influence the supply and demand of obstetric interventions is required.

Factors associated with the inter-facility transfer of inpatients in Sichuan province, China.

BACKGROUND: The overuse of tertiary hospitals and underuse of primary care facilities has been one of the key reasons leading to fast health expenditure increase and health service utilization inequity in China. Recent health care reform in China tries to enforce a patient transfer system to make the health services utilization more efficient. This study examined the pattern and associated factors of inter-facility transfer of inpatients in Sichuan province of Western China. METHODS: Patient discharge records (n = 1,490,695) from 604 general hospitals during the period of April to June 2015 in Sichuan were extracted from the front page of the medical records system with individual information on demographics, insurance coverage, diagnoses, hospitals admitted and discharge type. We calculated the percentage of inpatients transferring to other health facilities, the Inter-Facility Transfer Rate (IFTR) with adjustment for Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI). Multi-level logistic regression models were established to identify factors associated with IFTRs. RESULTS: A small number of tertiary hospitals (n = 75, 12.41%) shared 51.71% (n = 770,823) of all admitted cases while a large number of primary/unrated hospitals (n = 321, 53.15%) shared only 8.15%. The overall CCI-adjusted IFTR was 2.08% with 3.73% among secondary hospitals, 1.87% among tertiary hospitals and 1.30% among primary/unrated hospitals. Uninsured patients (OR = 1.13) and those with a lower level of insurance entitlements (OR = 1.12 for the New Rural Cooperative Medical Scheme and the Basic Medical Insurance for Urban Residents) were more likely to experience inter-facility transfer than those with a higher level of insurance entitlements (the Basic Medical Insurance for Urban Employees). CONCLUSION: The level of IFTR in general hospitals in Sichuan is low, which is associated with the level of hospitals and insurance entitlements. Further studies are needed to better understand how patients and health care providers respond to different insurance policies and make decisions on inter-facility transfer.

Effect of a typical systemic hospital reform on inpatient expenditure for rural population: the Sanming model in China.

BACKGROUND: Considering catastrophic health expenses in rural households with hospitalised members were unproportionally high, in 2013, China developed a model of systemic reform in Sanming by adjusting payment method, pharmaceutical system, and medical services price. The reform was expected to control the excessive growth of hospital expenditures by reducing inefficiency and waste in health system or shortening the length of stay. This study analyzed the systemic reform's impact on the financial burden and length of stay for the rural population in Sanming. METHODS: A total of 1,113,615 inpatient records for the rural population were extracted from the rural new cooperative medical scheme (NCMS) database in Sanming from 2007 to 2012 (before the reform) and from 2013 to 2016 (after the reform). We calculated the average growth rate of total inpatient expenditures and costs of different medical service categories (medications, diagnostic testing, physician services and therapeutic services) in these two periods. Generalized linear models (GLM) were employed to examine the effect of reform on out-of-pocket (OOP) expenditures and length of stay, controlling for some covariates. Furthermore, we controlled the fixed effects of the year and hospitals, and included cluster standard errors by hospital to assess the robustness of the findings in the GLM analysis. RESULTS: The typical systemic reform decreased the average growth rate of total inpatient expenditures by 1.34%, compared with the period before the reform. The OOP expenditures as a share of total expenditures showed a downward trend after the reform (42.34% in 2013). Holding all else constant, individuals after the reform spent ¥308.42 less on OOP expenditures (p < 0.001) than they did before the reform. Moreover, length of stay had a decrease of 0.67 days after the reform (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggested that the typical systemic hospital reform of the Sanming model had some positive effects on cost control and reducing financial burden for the rural population. Considering the OOP expenditures as a share of total expenditures was still high, China still has a long way to go to improve the benefits rural people have enjoyed from the NCMS.

Subscribers' perception of quality of services provided by Ghana's National Health Insurance Scheme - what are the correlates?

BACKGROUND: Ghana's National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) has witnessed an upsurge in enrollment since its inception in 2003, with over 40% of the Ghanaian population actively enrolled in the scheme. While the scheme strives to achieve universal health coverage, this quest is derailed by negative perceptions of the quality of services rendered to NHIS subscribers. This paper presents an analysis on perceptions of service quality provided to subscribers of Ghana's NHIS with emphasis on rural and urban scheme policy holders, using a nationally representative data. METHODS: The study used data from the 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey. Ordered logistic regressions were estimated to identify the correlates of perceived quality of care of services rendered by the NHIS. Also, chi-square statistics were performed to test for significant differences in the proportions of subscribers in the two subsamples (rural and urban). RESULTS: Rural subscribers of the NHIS were found to identify more with better perception of quality of services provided by the NHIS than urban subscribers. Results from the chi-square statistics further indicated that rural subscribers are significantly different from urban subscribers in terms of the selected socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. In the full sample; age, out-of-pocket payment for healthcare and region of residence proved significant in explaining perceived quality of services rendered by the NHIS. Age, out-of-pocket payment for healthcare, region of residence, wealth status, and access to media were found to be significant predictors of perceived quality of services provided to both rural and urban subscribers of the NHIS. The significance of these variables varied among men and women in rural and urban areas. CONCLUSION: Different factors affect the perception of quality of services provided to rural and urban subscribers of Ghana's NHIS. Health financing policies geared toward improving the NHIS-related services in rural and urban areas should be varied.

Urbano y rural: diferencias en la alimentación de los hogares argentinos según nivel de ingreso y área de residencia / Urban and rural: differences in the diet of Argentine households according to income level and area of residence

RESUMEN El entorno y el nivel socioeconómico son determinantes del comportamiento alimentario porque inciden en la disponibilidad, la accesibilidad y las preferencias alimentarias. Con el objetivo de describir el consumo aparente de alimentos y la disponibilidad de energía y nutrientes de hogares urbanos y rurales de la Argentina, según su nivel de ingresos, se analizó la Encuesta Nacional de Gastos de los Hogares 2004-2005. Se calculó el consumo aparente promedio de alimentos y bebidas en gramos o mililitros de peso neto por adulto equivalente por día, de hogares urbanos y rurales, y según quintil de ingresos per cápita del hogar. El 7% fueron hogares rurales, y presentaron mayor proporción de familias con bajos ingresos respecto a los urbanos. Existe un patrón de consumo aparente de alimentos y bebidas distinto entre hogares rurales y urbanos de Argentina, y además existen diferencias entre los hogares según el nivel de ingresos en ambos entornos. Conocer los contrastes y su magnitud es de gran utilidad para buscar estrategias tendientes a mejorar la alimentación de la población.

ABSTRACT The environment and the socioeconomic level are determinants of eating behavior because they affect availability, accessibility and food preferences. In order to describe the apparent consumption of food and the availability of energy and nutrients in urban and rural households in Argentina according to their income level, the 2004-2005 National Household Expenditure Survey was analyzed. The average apparent consumption of food and beverages was calculated in grams or milliliters of net weight per adult equivalent per day, for urban and rural households, and by household income per capita quintiles. Rural households made up 7% of the sample, and had a higher proportion of low-income families than urban households. There is different pattern of apparent consumption of food and beverages among rural and urban households in Argentina, and there are also differences between households according to the level of income in both environments. Knowing the content and magnitude of these contrasts is of great use in looking for strategies to improve the population's diet.