Suppression of Chlamydial Pathogenicity by Nonspecific CD8+ T Lymphocytes.

Chlamydia trachomatis, a leading infectious cause of tubal infertility, induces upper genital tract pathology, such as hydrosalpinx, which can be modeled with Chlamydia muridarum infection in mice. Following C. muridarum inoculation, wild-type mice develop robust hydrosalpinx, but OT1 mice fail to do so because their T cell receptors are engineered to recognize a single ovalbumin epitope (OVA457-462). These observations have demonstrated a critical role of Chlamydia-specific T cells in chlamydial pathogenicity. In the current study, we have also found that OT1 mice can actively inhibit chlamydial pathogenicity. First, depletion of CD8+ T cells from OT1 mice led to the induction of significant hydrosalpinx by Chlamydia, indicating that CD8+ T cells are necessary to inhibit chlamydial pathogenicity. Second, adoptive transfer of CD8+ T cells from OT1 mice to CD8 knockout mice significantly reduced chlamydial induction of hydrosalpinx, demonstrating that OT1 CD8+ T cells are sufficient for attenuating chlamydial pathogenicity in CD8 knockout mice. Finally, CD8+ T cells from OT1 mice also significantly inhibited hydrosalpinx development in wild-type mice following an intravaginal inoculation with Chlamydia Since T cells in OT1 mice are engineered to recognize only the OVA457-462 epitope, the above observations have demonstrated a chlamydial antigen-independent immune mechanism for regulating chlamydial pathogenicity. Further characterization of this mechanism may provide information for developing strategies to reduce infertility-causing pathology induced by infections.

Uterotubal junction prevents chlamydial ascension via innate immunity.

Ascension to the oviduct is necessary for Chlamydia to induce tubal infertility. Using the Chlamydia muridarum induction of hydrosalpinx mouse model, we have demonstrated a significant role of the uterotubal junction in preventing chlamydial ascending infection. First, delivery of C. muridarum to either side of the uterotubal junction resulted in significant reduction in live organisms from the tissues on the opposite sides. However, the recovery yields remained similar among different sections of the uterine horn. These observations suggest that the uterotubal junction may function as a barrier between the uterine horn and oviduct. Second, deficiency in innate immunity signaling pathways mediated by either MyD88 or STING significantly compromised the uterotubal junction barrier function, permitting C. muridarum to spread freely between uterine horn and oviduct. Finally, transcervical inoculation of C. muridarum led to significantly higher incidence of bilateral hydrosalpinges in the STING-deficient mice while the same inoculation mainly induced unilateral hydrosalpinx in the wild type mice, suggesting that the STING pathway-dependent uterotubal junction plays a significant role in preventing tubal pathology. Thus, we have demonstrated for the first time that the uterotubal junction is a functional barrier for preventing tubal infection by a sexually transmitted agent, providing the first in vivo evidence for detecting chlamydial infection by the STING pathway.

Characterization of tubal occlusion after transcervical polidocanol foam (PF) infusion in baboons.

OBJECTIVE: Our long-term goal is to develop a nonsurgical method of fallopian tubal occlusion for the purpose of permanent contraception. We have previously demonstrated that transcervical administration of 5% polidocanol foam (PF) can create tubal occlusion in macaques but that multiple treatments are required. In this study, we assessed the efficacy of various regimens of PF with and without depomedroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) (to control ovarian cycle phase) in the baboon. STUDY DESIGN: Adult cycling female baboons were evaluated for tubal patency by hysterosalpingography and then received a transcervical infusion of PF with (+) or without (-) an intramuscular injection of DMPA (3.5 mg/kg). Two concentrations of PF were compared: 1% [(+) DMPA, n=5; (-) DMPA, n=3] and 5% [(+) DMPA, n=4; (-) DMPA, n=3]. Controls received (+) DMPA (n=2) or (-) DMPA, (n=3) only. The reproductive tracts were removed 1-3 months after treatment for examination. RESULTS: No fallopian tubal occlusion was observed in negative controls (±DMPA). Histologic complete tubal occlusion was observed in 3/8 of females treated with 1% PF and in 6/7 treated with 5% PF. Histologic evaluation suggested that 1% PF is associated with prolonged chronic inflammation (more than 2-3 months), while 5% treatment eliminates the epithelial lining, at least focally, and resolves into complete occlusion within 1-2 months. This pattern of complete occlusion was seen in all 4 females that received 5% PF (+DMPA) and in 2/3 that received 5% PF (-DMPA). CONCLUSION: In a baboon model of transcervical permanent contraception, a single treatment with 5% PF resulted in complete tubal occlusion more reliably (85%) than 1% PF (38%). Cotreatment with DMPA may improve treatment results with 5% PF but requires additional study. IMPLICATIONS: A finding that a single transcervical treatment with 5% PF can occlude the fallopian tubes of baboon supports further study of this approach as a novel strategy for permanent contraception for women.

Chrono- and Immunocorrection of Inflammatory Disorders of Internal Reproductive Organs in Women of Reproductive Age.

We compared the effectiveness of immunomodulators used in the treatment of patients with chronic salpingitis and oophoritis with or without changes in succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) activity in blood lymphocytes at incubation with the drug. Diurnal variations in individual reaction of SDH in blood lymphocytes to thymalin or ridostin were revealed. In the groups of women receiving ridostin or thymalin during the reaction of lymphocyte SDH to it, improvement of clinical laboratory and immunological parameters was observed in the majority of the patients and no effect was found in a lesser group of patients than in the groups treated with drugs during the absence of lymphocyte SDH reaction thereto. The timing of the presence of SDH reaction to drugs in the immunocompetent cells makes it possible to set the optimal daily regime of their application and to select a drug that would be most effective in each particular case.

Pathogenesis of fallopian tube damage caused by Chlamydia trachomatis infections.

Chlamydia trachomatis is the leading cause of bacterial sexually transmitted disease worldwide resulting in 4-5 million new cases of Chlamydia annually and an estimated 100 million cases per annum. Infections of the lower female genital tract (FGT) frequently are asymptomatic; thus, they often remain undiagnosed or untreated. If infections are either not resolved or left untreated, chlamydia can ascend to the upper FGT and infect the fallopian tubes (FTs) causing salpingitis that may lead to functional damage of the FTs and tubal factor infertility (TFI). Clinical observations and experimental data have indicated a role for antibodies against C. trachomatis proteins such as the 60-kDa heat shock protein 60 (cHSP60) in the immunopathogenesis of TFI. When released from infected cells, cHSP60 can induce proinflammatory immune responses that may functionally impair the FTs leading to fibrosis and luminal occlusion. Chlamydial pathogenesis of irreversible and permanent tubal damage is a consequence of innate and adaptive host immune responses to ongoing or repeated infections. The extracellular matrix that is regulated by metalloproteinases may also be modified by chlamydial infections of the FGT. This review will highlight protective and pathogenic immune responses to ongoing and repeated chlamydial infections of the FGT. It will also present two recent hypotheses to explain mechanisms that may contribute to FT damage during a C. trachomatis infection. If Chlamydia immunopathology can be controlled, it might yield a method of inducing fibrosis and thus provide a means of nonsurgical permanent contraception for women.

CXCL13 expression in Chlamydia trachomatis infection of the female reproductive tract.

Chlamydia trachomatis is the most common cause of acute salpingitis worldwide. The socioeconomic impact of sexually transmitted infections (STI) caused by C. trachomatis is considerable. The purpose of this study was to investigate secretion of a unique chemokine, CXCL13, during the inflammatory process in human fallopian tube tissue in response to infection with C. trachomatis. We employed two models for our experiments: archived fallopian tube paraffin sections from known cases of salpingitis of unknown etiology and human fallopian tube organ culture established from fresh fallopian tube biopsies subsequently infected in vitro with C. trachomatis serovar E. We used immunohistochemistry, microarray analysis and cytometric bead array to study these specimens. In both models, we found that the fallopian tissue infected with C. trachomatis expressed CXCL13 and other characteristics of tertiary lymphoid tissue. In addition, we found that CXCL13 was expressed in multiple cell types, including endothelial cells, demonstrating a mechanism for the lymphoid aggregation seen in fallopian tube tissue during salpingitis and infection with C. trachomatis.

Innate immunity and disorders of the female reproductive tract.

Sexually transmitted infections, and their associated sequelae, such as tubal infertility, ectopic pregnancy and preterm labour, are a major worldwide health problem. Chlamydia trachomatis infection is thought to be the leading global cause of tubal infertility and tubal ectopic pregnancy. Preterm birth occurs in around 10% of all deliveries, and nearly 30% of preterm deliveries are associated with intrauterine infection. The mucosal innate immune system of the female reproductive tract has evolved to eliminate such sexually transmitted pathogens whilst maintaining its ability to accommodate specialized physiological functions that include menstruation, fertilization, implantation, pregnancy and parturition. The aim of this review was to describe the role and distribution of key mediators of the innate immune system, the natural antimicrobial peptides (secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor, elafin and the defensins) and the pattern recognition toll-like receptors in the normal female reproductive tract and in the context of these pathological processes.

Presence of hydrosalpinx correlated to endometrial inflammatory response in vivo.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate and compare the inflammatory response and mediators in the endometrium of patients with hydrosalpinges compared with normal controls. DESIGN: Retrospective case-control study. SETTING: Urban medical center. PATIENT(S) AND INTERVENTION(S): Hysterectomy samples were identified as being affected by hydrosalpinx or salpingitis (n = 30) and were age-matched with control samples (n = 30). INTERVENTIONS: Fallopian tube and endometrial slides were analyzed for leukocytes and immunohistochemical techniques performed for cytokines (interleukin-2 [IL-2]). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Evaluate and compare the endometrial inflammatory response (leukocytes and cytokines) from samples affected and non-affected by hydrosalpinx and salpingitis. RESULT(S): Examination of tubal and endometrial slides with hydrosalpinx demonstrated a statistically significant increase in the number of overall inflammatory cells. High-intensity immunohistochemical staining for IL-2 was demonstrated in 7.4% of controls versus 65% of cases. CONCLUSION(S): A defined, identifiable, local response to hydrosalpingeal fluid has been demonstrated in the endometrium. This response consists of statistically significant elevations of leukocytes and IL-2. An inflammatory endometrial response may be an independent contributor to the decreased reproductive outcome observed in patients with hydrosalpinges.

Infection of human fallopian tube epithelial cells with Neisseria gonorrhoeae protects cells from tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced apoptosis.

Following infection with Neisseria gonorrhoeae, bacteria may ascend into the Fallopian tubes (FT) and induce salpingitis, a major cause of infertility. In the FT, interactions between mucosal epithelial cells and gonococci are pivotal events in the pathogen's infection cycle and the inflammatory response. In the current study, primary FT epithelial cells were infected in vitro with different multiplicities of infection (MOI) of Pil+ Opa+ gonococci. Bacteria showed a dose-dependent association with cells and induced the secretion of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha). A significant finding was that gonococcal infection (MOI = 1) induced apoptosis in approximately 30% of cells, whereas increasing numbers of bacteria (MOI = 10 to 100) did not induce apoptosis. Apoptosis was observed in only 11% of cells with associated bacteria, whereas >84% of cells with no adherent bacteria were apoptotic. TNF-alpha was a key contributor to apoptosis, since (i) culture supernatants from cells infected with gonococci (MOI = 1) induced apoptosis in naïve cultures, suggesting that a soluble factor was responsible; (ii) gonococcal infection-induced apoptosis was inhibited with anti-TNF-alpha antibodies; and (iii) the addition of exogenous TNF-alpha induced apoptosis, which was inhibited by the presence of increasing numbers of bacteria (MOI = 10 to 100). These data suggest that TNF-alpha-mediated apoptosis of FT epithelial cells is likely a primary host defense mechanism to prevent pathogen colonization. However, epithelial cell-associated gonococci have evolved a mechanism to protect the cells from undergoing TNF-alpha-mediated apoptosis, and this modulation of the host innate response may contribute to establishment of infection. Understanding the antiapoptotic mechanisms used by Neisseria gonorrhoeae will inform the pathogenesis of salpingitis and could suggest new intervention strategies for prevention and treatment of the disease.

Tubal occlusion causing infertility due to an excessive inflammatory response in patients with predisposition for keloid formation.

Infertility is a condition that affects approximately 15-25% of couples with the desire to procreate. The integrity of the feminine reproductive tract is essential for this purpose, but the occlusion of the Fallopian tubes occurs in 12-33% of infertile women. The infection by Chlamydia trachomatis is one of the principle causes of tubal injury, which could finally lead to tubal occlusion. The tract infection has also been related to the use of intrauterine device, basically due to the fact that the insertion of the device could carry bacteria to the endometrial cavity. Keloid scars result from alterations in the normal process of wound healing, and it affects principally the population in reproductive age, maybe due to specific hormonal influence. These fibroproliferative alterations may produce significant deformations and alter organ function. The genetic factors have been studied in order to have a better understanding of the pathophysiology of keloid scarring. With these assessments, many other factors have been known to have a relationship with this abnormal healing process. This keloid scarring involves an excess in extracellular matrix production and inhibition of apoptosis, for which a several growth factors and interleukins are needed. One of the most important growth factors is IGF-1, which increases the expression of type I and III procollagen (found in the uterus); the IGF-1 receptor is overexpressed in the fibroblasts of keloids. Based on those previous observations a hypothesis that the chronic and repeated infection, and the use of IUD, generate an exaggerated inflammatory response in patients with a predisposition for keloid formation (which frequently form in childbearing age), in comparison to the patients that do not form this type of scarring, has been proposed. This makes a major frequency of adherences and finally tubal occlusion and infertility. The tendency of excessive scarring could not be exclusive of skin and generate abnormal scarring responses in feminine reproductive tract, leading to a major frequency of infertility. Thus, it could be suggested the use of other contraceptive methods and a more aggressive treatment against infections of the reproductive tract, taking in consideration the pathophysiology of keloid scar formation and its relationship with tubal occlusion.

[Disturbances in immunological reactivity in women with tuboperitoneal sterility]. / Narusheniia immunologicheskoi reaktivnosti u zhenshchin s trubno-peritoneal'nym besplodiem.

The role of immune disturbances on the systemic and local levels is evaluated and the immunological mechanisms of tuboperitoneal sterility as the basis for the development of the methods of immunocorrection is grounded.

Heat shock protein 60 is the major antigen which stimulates delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction in the macaque model of Chlamydia trachomatis salpingitis.

Chlamydial delayed-type hypersensitivity antigens were analyzed by using the subcutaneous salpingeal autotransplant model of Macaca nemestrina infected with Chlamydia trachomatis serovar E. Heat shock protein 60 was the only antigen shown to induce delayed-type hypersensitivity among other antigens tested, including UV-inactivated organisms, recombinant major outer membrane protein, purified outer membrane proteins, and heat shock protein 10.

DNA immunization with pgp3 gene of Chlamydia trachomatis inhibits the spread of chlamydial infection from the lower to the upper genital tract in C3H/HeN mice.

Chlamydia trachomatis pgp3 DNA immunized (no. 300) and non-immunized (no. 300) C3H/HeN mice were infected by vaginal inoculation with infectious C. trachomatis serotype D elementary bodies (EBs) and the spread of infection to the salpinges was assessed by cell culture isolation from tissue homogenates 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 and 42 days post-infection (p.i.). Overall, the pgp3-DNA immunization prevented salpinx infection in 94 (56%) mice, if compared with the 168 positive animals found among the non-immunized animals (P < 0.001). A group of negative control animals (i.e. mice immunized with plasmid DNA containing an irrelevant insert) was not protected, whereas all the mice of a positive immune control group (mice that had resolved a primary genital C. trachomatis infection) were resistant to re-infection. Pgp3 DNA immunization induced both humoral and mucosal anti-pgp3 antibodies.

TNF contributes to the immunopathology of perforin/Fas ligand double deficiency.

Perforin (pfp)/Fas ligand (FasL) double-deficient mice have previously been shown to be infertile, lose weight and die prematurely due to tissue destruction caused by a significant inflammatory infiltrate of monocytes/macrophages and T cells. Herein we have compared disease progression in mice additionally deficient in the inflammatory mediator TNF. Unlike pfp/FasL double-deficient mice (TNF+/+ pfp-/- gld), mice lacking functional TNF, FasL and pfp (TNF-/- pfp-/- gld) were comparatively fertile, with the majority of mice not suffering severe pancreatitis or hysterosalphingitis in the first 5 months of life. The mean lifespan of TNF-/- pfp-/- gld mice was 217 +/- 79 days compared with 69 +/- 10 days for TNF+/+ pfp-/- gld mice and the majority of moribund TNF-/- pfp-/- gld mice appeared to die as a result of severe pancreatitis, suggesting that loss of TNF was not completely protective. At 8 weeks of age, characteristics associated with the gld phenotype, such as expansion of B220+ CD4- CD8- T cells, lymphadenopathy and hypergammaglobulinemia were comparable between TNF+/+ pfp-/- gld and TNF-/- pfp-/- gld mice, although the lymphoid organs of TNF+/+ pfp-/- gld mice contained greater numbers of B220+ CD4- CD8- T cells, macrophages and T cells. We conclude that TNF is necessary for the full manifestation of immune dysregulation caused by pfp/FasL-deficiency, in particular in the early and overwhelming tissue infiltration and destruction caused by inflammatory cells.

[Functional activity of phagocytizing cells of the female reproductive tract in inflammation of the upper part of genitalia]. / Funktsional'naia aktivnost' fagotsitiruiushchikh kletok reproduktivnogo trakta zhenshchin pri vospalenii verkhnego otdela genitalii.

66 women of reproductive age with different course of the inflammatory process in the upper section of the reproductive tract (endometritis and salpingo-oophoritis) were examined. The cell composition, viability and functional activity of the phagocytizing cells of cervical and endometrial secretions, as well as peritoneal exudate, were studied. The study revealed that these characteristics of the phagocytizing cells of the reproductive tract in women with the inflammatory process differed from similar characteristics in healthy women. Different changes in the functional activity of neutrophils and macrophages in the biological fluids under study in different course of the inflammatory process were detected.

[A comparative assessment of different cryotherapy methods for patients with chronic nonspecific salpingo=oophoritis]. / Sravnitel'naia otsenka razlichnykh metodik krioterapii bol'nykh khronicheskim nespetsificheskim sal'pingooforitom.

97 females at reproductive age with chronic nonspecific salpingo-oophoritis (CNSO) were examined and treated. The results of the treatment (vaginal and external impact) demonstrate positive effects of various cryotherapeutic techniques on CNSO clinical course, on hormonal and immune unbalance, functional activity of the uterine tubes, regional hemodynamics, psychoemotional status. Thus, cryotherapy is an effective adjuvant in combined therapy of CNSO.

Changes in thymosin-alpha(1)content in patients with nonspecific gynecologic diseases depending on inflammation type and efficacy of antiinflammatory and immunomodulating therapy.

Plasma content of thymosin-alpha(1)and its circadian variations in patients with inflammatory gynecologic diseases differ from those in healthy donors and depend on the type of inflammation and efficacy of treatment. It is concluded that not only the absolute content of thymic hormones, but also their biorhythmic variations are important for immune regulation.

Perforin/Fas-ligand double deficiency is associated with macrophage expansion and severe pancreatitis.

We report that perforin/Fas-ligand double-deficient mice die early of severe pancreatitis. Female mice, in addition, are infertile and suffer from hysterosalpingitis. Tissue destruction is accompanied by infiltration with Mac-1 (CD11b)-positive monocytes/macrophages, Mac-1-positive T cells, and expansion of CD8+ T cells. In vivo inactivation of monocytes/macrophages by carrageenan reverses disease progression and restores fertility of female mice. Perforin/Fas-ligand double-deficient CD4+ or CD8+ CTL are unable to lyse cognate-activated macrophages, and therefore are unable to mediate negative feedback regulation by lysis of APCs, thereby preventing further T cell activation. These studies demonstrate a novel role for perforin in homeostatic regulation of the immune response.