Water, sanitation, and hygiene access among people who inject drugs in Tijuana and San Diego in 2020-2021: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) access is critical to public health and human dignity. People who inject drugs (PWID) experience stigma and structural violence that may limit WASH access. Few studies have assessed WASH access, insecurity, and inequities among PWID. We describe WASH access, social and geographic inequalities, and factors associated with WASH insecurity among PWID in the Tijuana-San Diego metropolitan area. METHODS: In this cross-sectional binational study, we interviewed PWID (age 18+) in 2020-2021 about WASH access and insecurity. City of residence (Tijuana/San Diego) and housing status were considered as independent variables to describe key WASH access outcomes and to assess as factors associated with WASH insecurity outcomes. Measures of association between outcomes and independent variables were assessed using log modified-Poisson regression models adjusting for covariates. RESULTS: Of 586 PWID (202 Tijuana; 384 San Diego), 89% reported basic access to drinking water, 38% had basic hand hygiene, 28% basic sanitation, and 46% access to bathing, and 38% reported recent open defecation. Participants residing in Tijuana reported significantly higher insecurity in accessing basic drinking water (aRR: 1.68, 95%CI: 1.02-2.76), basic hygiene (aRR: 1.45, 95%CI: 1.28-1.64), and bathing (aRR: 1.21, 95%CI: 1.06-1.39) than those living in San Diego. Participants experiencing unsheltered homelessness experienced significantly higher insecurity in accessing basic drinking water (aRR: 2.03, 95%CI: 1.07-3.86), basic sanitation (aRR: 1.68, 95%CI: 1.48, 1.92), bathing (aRR: 1.84, 95%CI: 1.52-2.22), and improved water sources for cleaning wounds (aRR: 3.12, 95%CI: 1.55-6.29) and for preparing drugs (aRR: 2.58, 95%CI: 1.36-4.89) than participants living in permanent housing. CONCLUSION: WASH access among PWID in the Tijuana-San Diego metropolitan area was low by international standards and lower than the national averages in both countries. Homelessness was significantly associated with WASH insecurity in this population. Concentrated efforts are needed to guarantee continuously available WASH services for PWID-especially those who are unsheltered.

Child Mouthing of Soil and Contaminated Fomites and Unimproved Sanitation are Associated with Subsequent Poor Child Developmental Outcomes in Urban Bangladesh (CHoBI7 Program).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relationship between mouthing of soil and living in unsanitary conditions and child cognitive development in urban Bangladesh. STUDY DESIGN: This prospective cohort study of 224 children under 5 years of age was conducted in urban Dhaka, Bangladesh. Developmental outcomes were assessed by communication, fine motor, gross motor, personal social, problem solving, and combined developmental scores measured by the Extended Ages and Stages Questionnaire (EASQ) at a 12-month follow-up visit. RESULTS: Children who had caregiver reports of puting soil in their mouths at the majority of surveillance visits had significantly lower combined EASQ Z scores (coefficient, -0.53; 95% CI, -0.83 to -0.22) at the 12-month follow-up visit. Children who had caregiver reports of putting visibly dirty objects in their mouths at the majority of visits had significantly lower combined EASQ Z scores (-0.50; 95% CI, -0.79 to -0.22). Children in households with unimproved sanitation had significantly lower combined EASQ Z scores (-0.63; 95% CI, -1.11 to -0.16). CONCLUSIONS: Children found to frequently put soil and visibly dirty objects in their mouths, and those who resided in households using unimproved sanitation, had lower subsequent cognitive developmental outcomes. These findings demonstrate the importance of interventions targeting child mouthing behaviors and sanitation infrastructure to decrease exposure to fecal pathogens and improve child cognitive developmental outcomes.

National and subnational coverage and inequalities in reproductive, maternal, newborn, child, and sanitary health interventions in Ecuador: a comparative study between 1994 and 2012.

BACKGROUND: Latin America (LA) has experienced constant economic and political crises that coincide with periods of greater inequality. Between 1996 and 2007 Ecuador went through one of the greatest political and socio-economic crises in Latin America, a product of neo-liberal economic growth strategies. Between 2007 and 2012 it regained political stability, promoted redistributive policies, and initiated greater social spending. To understand the possible influence on the political and economic context, we analyzed the coverage and inequalities in five Reproductive, Maternal, and Child Health (RMNCH) and two water and sanitation interventions using survey data from a broad time window (1994-2012), at a national and subnational level. METHODS: The series cross-sectional study used data from four representative national health surveys (1994, 1999, 2004 and 2012). Coverage of RMNCH and sanitary interventions were stratified by wealth quintiles (as a measure of the socio-economic level), urban-rural residence and the coverage for each province was mapped. Mean difference, Theil index and Variance-weighted least squares regression were calculated to indicate subnational and temporal changes. RESULTS: From 1994 to 2004, Ecuador evidenced large inequalities whose reduction becomes more evident in 2012. Coverage in RMNCH health service-related interventions showed a rather unequal distribution among the socioeconomic status and across provinces in 1994 and 2004, compared to 2012. Sanitary interventions on the contrary, showed the most unequal interventions, and failed to improve or even worsened in several provinces. While there is a temporary improvement also at the subnational level, in 2012 several provinces maintain low levels of coverage. CONCLUSIONS: The remarkable reduction of inequalities in coverage of RMNCH interventions in 2012 clearly coincides with periods of regained political stability, promoted redistributive policies, and greater social spending, different from the former neo-liberal reforms which is consistent with observations made in other Latin American countries. Territorial heterogeneity and great inequalities specially related with sanitation interventions persists. It is necessary to obtain high quality information with sharper geographic desegregation that allows to identify and understand local changes over time. This would help to prioritize intervention strategies, introduce multisectoral policies and investments that support local governments.

Evaluation of the Efficiency of Basic Sanitation Integrated Management in Brazilian Municipalities.

This study aims to evaluate the level of technical efficiency of companies that perform the integrated management of basic sanitation in Brazilian municipalities. A Multiple Data Envelopment Analysis (M-DEA) model was applied to estimate the performance of water supply and sewage services in 1628 municipalities covering more than 56% of the Brazilian population, identifying the factors that most influence the efficiency of the sector in the years 2008 and 2016. The M-DEA methodology is an extension of Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) with multiple DEA executions considering all combinations of inputs and outputs to calculate efficiency scores. The methodology reduces possible biases in the selection of resources and products of the model, ability to support decision-making in favor of improvements in the sector's efficiency based on national regulatory framework. The analyses show that the companies analyzed can increase their operating results and attendance coverage by more than 60%, given the current levels of infrastructure, human and financial resources in the sector. Based on the simulation of potential efficiency gains in Brazilian basic sanitation companies, the estimates show that the coverage of the population with access to sanitary sewage would go from the current 59.9% to 76.5%. The evidence found provides indications to subsidize sanitation management in the country at the micro-analytical level, enabling a better competitive position in the sector for the integrated management of basic sanitation and its universalization in Brazil.

Market integration and soil-transmitted helminth infection among the Shuar of Amazonian Ecuador.

BACKGROUND: Soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections have many negative health outcomes (e.g., diarrhea, nutritional deficiencies) that can also exacerbate poverty. These infections are generally highest among low-income populations, many of which are also undergoing market integration (MI; increased participation in a market-based economy). Yet the direct impact of MI-related social and environmental changes on STH infection patterns is poorly understood, making it unclear which lifestyle factors should be targeted to better control disease spread. This cross-sectional study examines if household infrastructure associated with greater MI is associated with lower STH burdens among Indigenous Ecuadorian Shuar. METHODS: Kato-Katz fecal smears were used to determine STH infection status and intensity (n = 620 participants; 308 females, 312 males, aged 6 months-86 years); Ascaris lumbricoides (ascarid) and Trichuris trichiura (whipworm) were the primary infection types detected. Structured interviews assessing lifestyle patterns (e.g., measures of household infrastructure) measured participant MI. Multilevel regression analyses and zero-inflated negative binomial regression models tested associations between MI measures and STH infection status or intensity, controlling for individual and community characteristics. RESULTS: Participants residing in more market-integrated households exhibited lower infection rates and intensities than those in less market integrated households. Parasite infection status and T. trichiura infection intensity were lower among participants living in houses with wood floors than those with dirt floors, while individuals using well or piped water from a spring exhibited lower A. lumbricoides infection intensities compared to those using river or stream water. Unexpectedly, latrine type was not significantly related to STH infection status or intensity. These results suggest that sources of exposure differ between the two helminth species. CONCLUSIONS: This study documents associations between household measures and STH infection among an Indigenous population undergoing rapid MI. These findings can help healthcare programs better target interventions and reduce STH exposure among at-risk populations.

Characteristics of sanitation companies associated to water fluoridation of the supply systems of Brazilian municipalities, 2008. / Características das empresas de saneamento associadas à fluoretação da água dos sistemas de abastecimento de municípios do Brasil, 2008.

INTRODUCTION: The adjusted effect of the characteristics of sanitation companies on the provision of fluoridation into public water supply in Brazilian municipalities was evaluated. METHODS: Cross-sectional and ecological study based on the 2010 Demographic Census, 2008 National Survey on Basic Sanitation (PNSB), and 2010 Atlas of Human Development. The independent variables were the characteristics of utilities and municipalities, and the outcome was the lack of provision of fluoridation. Prevalence ratio was estimated with Poisson regression with robust variance. RESULTS: 5,565 Brazilian municipalities were included. In the adjusted analysis, the outcome was independently and positively associated to municipalities in the North, Northeast, Central-West and Southeast macro-regions, with coverage rates for water and sewage services below the median value, with less than 10,000 inhabitants, medium and low/very low in human development. Regarding the independent effect of the utilities' characteristics, they were more likely not to provide fluoridation, all the companies that were not classified as indirect administration of the government or mixed-capital company or mixed-capital company of public character; municipal and intermunicipal (PR=1.21; 95%CI 1.19-1.23); and when the municipal government is the only provider (PR=1.22; 95%CI 1.20-1.25). CONCLUSION: The lack of provision of water fluoridation was greater when the service was mainly provided by municipal administrations and private companies associated or not to public entities, regardless of the characteristics of the municipalities.

Basic sanitation and self-reported health in Brazilian capitals: a multilevel analysis. / Saneamento básico e saúde autoavaliada nas capitais brasileiras: uma análise multinível.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to analyze the association between the contextual determinants related to basic sanitation and self-reported health in Brazilian capitals. METHODS: The sample consisted of 27,017 adults (≥18 years) residing in the 27 Brazilian capitals in 2013, from the National Health Survey (PNS). The association between self-reported health and sanitation (sewage system, water supply and garbage collection) was analyzed using Bayesian multilevel models, controlling for individual factors (first level of the model) and area-level socioeconomic characteristics (second level). RESULTS: We found a consistent association between better self-reported health and better sanitation levels, even after controlling for individual and contextual characteristics. At the contextual level, lower odds of poor self-reported health was observed among those living in areas with medium (OR = 0.59, 95%CI 0.57 - 0.61) or high (OR = 0.61, 95%CI 0.57 - 0.66) sewage system level; medium (OR = 0.77, 95%CI 0.71 - 0.83) coverage of water supply; and high (OR = 0.78, 95%CI 0.69 - 0.89) garbage collection level. CONCLUSION: The positive association between better sanitation conditions and health, independently of the individual factors and the socioeconomic characteristics of the place of residence, confirms the need to consider sanitation in the planning of health policies.

OBJETIVO: Analisar a associação entre os determinantes contextuais referentes ao saneamento básico e a autoavaliação de saúde nas capitais brasileiras. MÉTODOS: Analisaram-se 27.017 adultos (≥ 18 anos) residentes nas 27 capitais brasileiras em 2013, utilizando dados da Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde (PNS). Ajustaram-se modelos multiníveis logísticos bayesianos para analisar a associação entre a autoavaliação de saúde e a cobertura dos serviços de saneamento básico (rede de esgoto, abastecimento de água e coleta de lixo), controlando a análise por fatores individuais (primeiro nível do modelo) e renda per capita da cidade de residência (segundo nível). RESULTADOS: A maior cobertura de serviços de saneamento básico esteve consistentemente associada à melhor percepção da saúde, mesmo após o controle pelas características individuais e contextuais. Observou-se menor chance de autoavaliação ruim de saúde entre indivíduos que viviam em capitais com média (odds ratio - OR = 0,59; intervalo de confiança - IC95% = 0,57 - 0,61) e alta (OR = 0,61; IC95% = 0,57 - 0,66) cobertura da rede de coleta de esgoto; média (OR = 0,77; IC95% = 0,71 - 0,83) cobertura de serviço de abastecimento de água; e alta (OR = 0,78; IC95% = 0,69 - 0,89) proporção de coleta de lixo. CONCLUSÃO: A associação positiva entre melhores condições de saneamento básico e a autoavaliação da saúde, independentemente dos fatores individuais e das condições socioeconômicas do local de residência, confirma a necessidade de se considerar o saneamento básico na elaboração de políticas de saúde.

Impact of Rotavirus Vaccination Varies by Level of Access to Piped Water and Sewerage: An Analysis of Childhood Clinic Visits for Diarrhea in Peru, 2005-2015.

BACKGROUND: We conducted a national impact evaluation of routine rotavirus vaccination on childhood diarrhea in Peru, accounting for potential modifying factors. METHODS: We utilized a dataset compiled from Peruvian governmental sources to fit negative binomial models investigating the impact of rotavirus vaccination, piped water access, sewerage access and poverty on the rate of diarrhea clinic visits in children under 5 years old in 194 Peruvian provinces. We considered the interaction between these factors to assess whether water access, sanitation access, or poverty modified the association between ongoing rotavirus vaccination and childhood diarrhea clinic visits. We compared the "pre-vaccine" (2005-2009) and "post-vaccine" (2010-2015) eras. RESULTS: The rate of childhood diarrhea clinic visits was 7% [95% confidence interval (CI): 3%-10%] lower in the post-vaccine era compared with the pre-vaccine era, controlling for long-term trend and El Niño seasons. No impact of rotavirus vaccination was identified in provinces with the lowest access to piped water (when <40% of province households had piped water) or in the lowest category of sewerage (when <17% of province households had a sewerage connection). Accounting for long-term and El Niño trends, the rate of childhood diarrhea clinic visits was lower in the post-vaccine era by 7% (95% CI: 2%-12%), 13% (95% CI: 7%-19%) and 15% (95% CI: 10%-20%) in the second, third and fourth (highest) quartiles of piped water access, respectively (compared with the pre-vaccine era); results for sewerage access were similar. CONCLUSION: Improved water/sanitation may operate synergistically with rotavirus vaccination to reduce childhood clinic visits for diarrhea in Peru.

Risk Factors for Stunting in Children under the Age of 5 in Rural Guatemalan Highlands.

Background: Previously, a study conducted by UNICEF found that malnutrition affects approximately 80% of the indigenous children in Guatemala. Objective: Identify prevalence and risk factors for stunted growth in communities surrounding Lake Atitlán, Guatemala. Methods: Height-for-age measurements of children under the age of five, N = 84, determined stunting prevalence and presumed burden of malnutrition in this region of the Guatemalan highlands. Mothers of a subset of this sample, N = 29, were interviewed to assess factors contributing to stunting. Analysis assessed the following risk factors: inadequate nutrition, increased infectious disease risk, high rate self-report illness, inadequate breastfeeding, and inadequate utilization of prenatal care. Findings: The majority of children under the age of five were stunted (65.6%) and likely malnourished. ANOVA analysis showed significant differences in mean height-for-age Z scores (HAZs) between groups with and without adequate nutrition (F = 7.069, p = 0.013), as well has with and without high rates of self-report illness (F = 6.894, p = 0.014). Both groups with inadequate nutrition (mean HAZs = -2.9, 95% CI = [-3.58, -2.24]) and high rates of self-report illness (mean HAZs = -2.8, 95% CI = [-3.13, -2.38]) had mean HAZs that are indicative of stunting. No other risk factors were associated with stunting. Conclusion: These pilot study results offer methods by which to obtain baseline data for assessing nutritional and public health interventions to improve stunting and malnutrition status as well as the health outcomes of children in rural, indigenous communities.

Potential microbial transmission pathways in rural communities using multiple alternative water sources in semi-arid Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Water scarcity combined with high incidences of diarrhoeal disease amongst many rural communities, suggests that the provision of 'safe' water supplies remains a challenge. Subsequent reliance on multi-source water supplies means that microbial transmission pathways may be numerous and complex. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to identify and elucidate water supply issues and potential microbial transmission pathways at the household level in rural communities in semi-arid Brazil. METHODS: Community and sanitary surveys were applied to 99 households from 10 communities located in four municipalities of Paraiba State, Brazil. Moreover, physicochemical and microbial parameters were investigated throughout the water supply chain. RESULTS: High levels of faecal indicator organisms (FIO) were detected in water from Water Storage Reservoirs (WSR) and from in-house Drinking Water Storage Containers (DWSC). A decrease in microbial water quality was observed between water stored within WSR's and DWSC's, suggesting potential cross-contamination at the household level. Several common practices were observed among rural residents, such as the use of collection buckets left unprotected outside on the ground, that may have also contributed to the observed decrease. Schematic diagrams illustrating the complex water supply chains and potential microbial transmission pathways were developed to facilitate identification of effective intervention strategies. DISCUSSION: Decreases in water supply quality were found to be predominantly caused by cross-contamination within the domestic environment due to several factors, including, a lack of awareness and knowledge of 'safe' collection, handling and storage of water, as well as inadequate sanitation services and/or unhygienic practices. In order to improve public health in such communities, more effort should be directed towards education and training of all stakeholders involved in the water supply chain. This would, certainly, support the successful implementation of further WASH interventions, consequently increasing the likelihood of achieving reduction of excreta-borne diseases.

Hospitalisations for mycoses as an indicator of socio-environmental vulnerability in the Brazilian Amazon-Savanna transition region.

BACKGROUND: The infections caused by fungi represent a global concern and an important cause of hospital admissions in endemic areas. The influence of socio-environmental factors in infectious diseases has been documented; however, this phenomenon remains unclear regarding mycoses. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to analyse the spatio-temporal dynamics of hospitalisations for mycoses (HM) and the association with socio-economic and climate data in the Amazon-Savanna Transition Region in the state of Maranhão, Brazil. METHODS: In this study, Spearman's correlation was applied to determine the correlation between HM, socio-economic and climatic data obtained from national databases in the period from 1998 to 2016. Hospitalisations for mycoses data were spatialised and analysed using the local Moran's index. RESULTS: Our data revealed a negative and significant correlation between HM and socio-economic data regarding population, demographic density, human development index, health facilities and sanitary sewage. Significant correlations were observed between HM and precipitation, maximum temperature and minimum temperature. The main modulating climatic variable was the minimum temperature. The spatial autocorrelation analysis showed the dynamics of HM in municipalities belonging to the different regions of the state influenced by socio-economic conditions. We observed the presence of municipalities with high incidence of HM surrounded by others with low HM cases and vice versa. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that hospitalisations for mycoses represent an important indicator of socio-environmental vulnerability in the Amazon-Savanna transition region in Brazil. We encourage the adoption of measures to mitigate social and environmental impact on these diseases, especially in municipalities with low socio-economic status.

Relationship of sanitation, water boiling, and mosquito nets to health biomarkers in a rural subsistence population.

OBJECTIVES: Throughout human evolutionary history, parasites and pathogens were a major cause of mortality-modern urban life with public health infrastructure has changed disease exposure. We examine associations between boiling water, using latrines, mosquito net usage, and biomarkers among the Tsimane, a nonindustrial subsistence population with little public health infrastructure. METHODS: We conducted cross sectional surveys on water, latrines, and bed nets among 507 heads of households (aged 18-92 years, median age 41 years). Regression models estimated associations between behaviors and health biomarkers (ie, white blood cell count [WBC], hemoglobin, eosinophil count, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate) adjusting for age, sex, body mass index, wealth, schooling, and distance to the nearby market town. RESULTS: Latrine use is associated with 6.5% lower WBC count (ß = -679.6, P = .031, SE = 314.1), 17.4% lower eosinophil counts (ß = -244.7, P = .023, SE = 107.2), and reduced odds of eosinophilia (adjusted OR = 0.40, P < .019, 95% CI = 0.18-0.86). Boiling water and mosquito net use are not significantly associated with any biomarkers measured. CONCLUSIONS: In a subsistence population currently undergoing epidemiological transition, we find that latrine use was associated with several objective measures of health. This suggests that relatively low cost and low maintenance public health interventions may wish to focus on latrine use, as there is unmet need and potential health benefits for those who use latrines. Additionally, while the cost is higher, public health organizations aimed at improving sanitation may be able to use minimally invasive field-collected biomarkers as a diagnostic to objectively test the efficacy of interventions with greater specificity than anthropometric measurements.

Características das empresas de saneamento associadas à fluoretação da água dos sistemas de abastecimento de municípios do Brasil, 2008 / Characteristics of sanitation companies associated to water fluoridation of the supply systems of Brazilian municipalities, 2008

RESUMO: Introdução: Avaliou-se o efeito ajustado das características das empresas de saneamento na provisão da fluoretação da água de abastecimento público nos municípios brasileiros. Métodos: Estudo ecológico transversal com base no Censo Demográfico 2010, Pesquisa Nacional de Saneamento Básico 2008 e Atlas de Desenvolvimento Humano 2010. As variáveis independentes foram as características das empresas e dos municípios e o desfecho foi a falta de provisão da fluoretação. Estimou-se a razão de prevalência por meio de regressão de Poisson com variância robusta. Resultados: Incluíram-se 5.565 municípios brasileiros. Na análise ajustada, o desfecho foi independente e positivamente associado com municípios das macrorregiões Norte, Nordeste, Centro-Oeste e Sudeste, que tinham taxas de cobertura de serviços de água e esgoto abaixo do valor mediano, menos de 10 mil habitantes e índice médio e baixo/muito baixo de desenvolvimento humano. Quanto ao efeito independente das características das empresas, tiveram maior probabilidade de não ofertar fluoretação todas as empresas classificadas como de administração indireta do poder público, ou sociedade de economia mista, ou economia mista de caráter público; as municipais e intermunicipais (razão de prevalência - RP = 1,21; intervalo de confiança de 95% - IC95% 1,19 - 1,23); e a prefeitura, quando única executora (RP = 1,22; IC95% 1,20 - 1,25). Conclusão: A falta de provisão da fluoretação da água foi maior quando o serviço era prestado preponderantemente por administrações municipais e empresas privadas, associadas ou não a entidades públicas, independentemente das características dos municípios.

ABSTRACT: Introduction: The adjusted effect of the characteristics of sanitation companies on the provision of fluoridation into public water supply in Brazilian municipalities was evaluated. Methods: Cross-sectional and ecological study based on the 2010 Demographic Census, 2008 National Survey on Basic Sanitation (PNSB), and 2010 Atlas of Human Development. The independent variables were the characteristics of utilities and municipalities, and the outcome was the lack of provision of fluoridation. Prevalence ratio was estimated with Poisson regression with robust variance. Results: 5,565 Brazilian municipalities were included. In the adjusted analysis, the outcome was independently and positively associated to municipalities in the North, Northeast, Central-West and Southeast macro-regions, with coverage rates for water and sewage services below the median value, with less than 10,000 inhabitants, medium and low/very low in human development. Regarding the independent effect of the utilities' characteristics, they were more likely not to provide fluoridation, all the companies that were not classified as indirect administration of the government or mixed-capital company or mixed-capital company of public character; municipal and intermunicipal (PR=1.21; 95%CI 1.19-1.23); and when the municipal government is the only provider (PR=1.22; 95%CI 1.20-1.25). Conclusion: The lack of provision of water fluoridation was greater when the service was mainly provided by municipal administrations and private companies associated or not to public entities, regardless of the characteristics of the municipalities.

Saneamento básico e saúde autoavaliada nas capitais brasileiras: uma análise multinível / Basic sanitation and self-reported health in Brazilian capitals: a multilevel analysis

RESUMO: Objetivo: Analisar a associação entre os determinantes contextuais referentes ao saneamento básico e a autoavaliação de saúde nas capitais brasileiras. Métodos: Analisaram-se 27.017 adultos (≥ 18 anos) residentes nas 27 capitais brasileiras em 2013, utilizando dados da Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde (PNS). Ajustaram-se modelos multiníveis logísticos bayesianos para analisar a associação entre a autoavaliação de saúde e a cobertura dos serviços de saneamento básico (rede de esgoto, abastecimento de água e coleta de lixo), controlando a análise por fatores individuais (primeiro nível do modelo) e renda per capita da cidade de residência (segundo nível). Resultados: A maior cobertura de serviços de saneamento básico esteve consistentemente associada à melhor percepção da saúde, mesmo após o controle pelas características individuais e contextuais. Observou-se menor chance de autoavaliação ruim de saúde entre indivíduos que viviam em capitais com média (odds ratio - OR = 0,59; intervalo de confiança - IC95% = 0,57 - 0,61) e alta (OR = 0,61; IC95% = 0,57 - 0,66) cobertura da rede de coleta de esgoto; média (OR = 0,77; IC95% = 0,71 - 0,83) cobertura de serviço de abastecimento de água; e alta (OR = 0,78; IC95% = 0,69 - 0,89) proporção de coleta de lixo. Conclusão: A associação positiva entre melhores condições de saneamento básico e a autoavaliação da saúde, independentemente dos fatores individuais e das condições socioeconômicas do local de residência, confirma a necessidade de se considerar o saneamento básico na elaboração de políticas de saúde.

ABSTRACT: Objective: This study aimed to analyze the association between the contextual determinants related to basic sanitation and self-reported health in Brazilian capitals. Methods: The sample consisted of 27,017 adults (≥18 years) residing in the 27 Brazilian capitals in 2013, from the National Health Survey (PNS). The association between self-reported health and sanitation (sewage system, water supply and garbage collection) was analyzed using Bayesian multilevel models, controlling for individual factors (first level of the model) and area-level socioeconomic characteristics (second level). Results: We found a consistent association between better self-reported health and better sanitation levels, even after controlling for individual and contextual characteristics. At the contextual level, lower odds of poor self-reported health was observed among those living in areas with medium (OR = 0.59, 95%CI 0.57 - 0.61) or high (OR = 0.61, 95%CI 0.57 - 0.66) sewage system level; medium (OR = 0.77, 95%CI 0.71 - 0.83) coverage of water supply; and high (OR = 0.78, 95%CI 0.69 - 0.89) garbage collection level. Conclusion: The positive association between better sanitation conditions and health, independently of the individual factors and the socioeconomic characteristics of the place of residence, confirms the need to consider sanitation in the planning of health policies.

[Basic sanitation and inequalities in color/race in urban households with under-five children, with a focus on the indigenous population]. / Saneamento básico e desigualdades de cor/raça em domicílios urbanos com a presença de crianças menores de 5 anos, com foco na população indígena.

This study aimed to analyze the presence of basic sanitation services in households with children under five years of age located in urban areas of Brazil, with a focus on indigenous children. This cross-sectional study was based on data from the 2010 Population Census. We calculated the rates of households with running water (public system), sewage disposal (public system or septic tanks), and garbage collection (directly or via public dumpsters). Multiple logistic regression (MLR) models were used to estimate associations between color/race and presence of sanitation services, based on odds ratios (OR). The study considered Brazil's urban metropolitan areas and stratified the results by major geographic region. Significance was set at 5%. The lowest frequencies were for sewage disposal, and all the rates were lower for indigenous people. MLR analyses included 29 comparisons (48.3%) in which households with indigenous children (compared to other color/race categories) were at a disadvantage, especially in the South of Brazil, where all comparisons were negative for indigenous households. Similar results appeared in metropolitan areas. The results thus suggest inequalities basic sanitation services based on color/race, where indigenous people are generally at a disadvantage, especially in the South of Brazil. Given the relationship between sanitation and health, as already demonstrated in the literature, these results can partly explain the low health levels in indigenous children in Brazil.

Objetivou-se analisar a presença dos serviços de saneamento básico em domicílios com crianças de até cinco anos de idade, localizados em áreas urbanas do Brasil, com foco nos indígenas. Trata-se de um estudo transversal com base na amostra do Censo Demográfico de 2010. Calcularam-se as frequências de domicílios com abastecimento de água (rede geral), esgotamento sanitário (rede geral ou fossa séptica) e coleta de lixo (diretamente ou por caçamba do serviço público de limpeza). Modelos de regressão logística múltipla (RLM) estimaram a associação entre cor/raça e presença dos serviços por meio das razões de chance (RC). Foram consideradas as áreas urbanas e regiões metropolitanas do país, estratificando os resultados por região. Utilizou-se nível de significância de 5%. As menores frequências foram encontradas para esgotamento sanitário e, em geral, para os indígenas. Nas análises de RLM foram 29 comparações (48,3%) em que os domicílios com crianças indígenas, quando comparados às outras categorias de cor/raça, encontram-se em desvantagem, em especial no Sul, onde todas as comparações foram negativas para os indígenas. Resultados semelhantes foram encontrados para as regiões metropolitanas. Nesse sentido, os resultados coligidos por este trabalho sugerem a possível existência de iniquidades relacionadas à presença dos serviços de saneamento básico e cor/raça dos indivíduos, em que os indígenas, em geral, ocupam posição de desvantagem, particularmente no Sul do país. Diante da relação entre saneamento e saúde já estabelecida na literatura, esses resultados podem explicar, em parte, os baixos níveis de saúde apresentados por crianças indígenas no Brasil.

El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar la presencia de servicios de saneamiento básico en domicilios con niños de hasta cinco años de edad, localizados en áreas urbanas de Brasil, enfocándose en los de origen indígena. Se trata de un estudio transversal, basado en la muestra del Censo Demográfico de 2010. Se calcularon las frecuencias de domicilios con abastecimiento de agua (red general), alcantarillado (red general o fosa séptica) y recogida de basura (directamente o mediante camiones de basura del servicio público de limpieza). Los modelos de regresión logística múltiple (RLM) estimaron la asociación entre color/raza, y la presencia de los servicios se realizó a través de las razones de oportunidad (RC). Se consideraron áreas urbanas y regiones metropolitanas del país, estratificando los resultados por región. Se utilizó un nivel de significancia del 5%. Las frecuencias menores se encontraron en el alcantarillado y, en general, respecto a los indígenas. En los análisis de RLM se realizaron 29 comparaciones (48,3%) en las que los domicilios con niños indígenas, cuando se comparan con otras categorías de color/raza, se encuentran en desventaja, en especial en el Sur, donde todas las comparaciones fueron negativas en relación con los indígenas. Resultados semejantes se encontraron respecto a las regiones metropolitanas. En ese sentido, los resultados recopilados por este estudio sugieren la posible existencia de inequidades relacionadas con la presencia de los servicios de saneamiento básico y color/raza de los individuos, donde los indígenas, en general, ocupan una posición de desventaja, particularmente en el Sur del país. Ante la relación entre saneamiento y salud, ya establecidos en la literatura, estos resultados pueden explicar, en parte, los bajos niveles de salud presentados por niños indígenas en Brasil.

Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals: A Mixed Methods Study of Health-Related Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) for Indigenous Shawi in the Peruvian Amazon.

Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG-6) addresses poor water quality, inadequate sanitation, and improper hygiene, all of which negatively impact health and disproportionately impact Indigenous Peoples' health. Understanding and responding to local contexts is critical to effectively improve water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH); however, in-depth understanding of local knowledge, practices, and perceptions are often overlooked. As such, this study described the knowledge, practices, and perceptions of WASH held by residents of two Indigenous Shawi communities in the Peruvian Amazon. Quantitative data were collected via a cross-sectional survey and analyzed using descriptive statistics. Qualitative data were collected via interviews, PhotoVoice, focus group discussions, and participatory transect walks, and analyzed using a constant comparative approach to thematic analysis. Emergent themes included characterizing water sources, collection methods, and consumption patterns; knowledge, perceptions, and practices related to WASH; and knowledge and perceptions of health issues related to WASH. This study provides insight into the ongoing challenges related to WASH in Indigenous communities in the Peruvian Amazon and highlights the need to prioritize interventions that will advance WASH-related SDGs.

Overall Quality and Sanitation Evaluation of Fish Stores at Local Markets in Ibagué, Tolima, Colombia.

HIGHLIGHTS: Results indicated ineffective cleaning and sanitation of surfaces and utensils. High incidence of coliforms indicated inadequate product handling. The low compliance with regulations was corroborated by luminometry results. Deficiencies in hygiene practices could be indicative of potential food safety problems.

Latent variable modeling to develop a robust proxy for sensitive behaviors: application to latrine use behavior and its association with sanitation access in a middle-income country.

BACKGROUND: Globally, diarrhea is a leading cause of child morbidity and mortality. Although latrines are integral for reducing enteric pathogen transmission, several studies have shown no evidence that latrine ownership improved child health. There are a number of explanations for these results. One explanation is that latrine access does not equate to latrine use. Latrine use, however, is difficult to accurately ascertain, as defecation behavior is often stigmatized. To address this measurement issue, we measure latrine use as a latent variable, indicated by a suite of psychosocial variables. METHODS: We administered a survey of 16 defecation-related psychosocial questions to 251 individuals living in rural Ecuador. We applied latent class analysis (LCA) to these data to model the probability of latrine use as a latent variable. To account for uncertainty in predicted latent class membership, we used a pseudo-class approach to impute five different probabilities of latrine use for each respondent. Via regression modeling, we tested the association between household sanitation and each imputed latrine use variable. RESULTS: The optimal model presented strong evidence of two latent classes (entropy = 0.86): consistent users (78%) and inconsistent users (22%), predicted by 5 of our 16 psychosocial variables. There was no evidence of an association between the probability of latrine use, predicted from the LCA, and household access to basic sanitation (OR = 1.1, 95% CI = 0.6-2.1). This suggests that home access to a sanitation facility may not ensure the use of the facility for every family member at all times. CONCLUSION: Effective implementation and evaluation of sanitation programs requires accurate measurement of latrine use. Psychosocial variables, such as norms, perceptions, and attitudes may provide robust proxy-measures. Future longitudinal studies will help to strengthen the use of these surrogate measures, as many of these factors may be subject to secular trends. Additionally, subgroup analyses will elucidate how our  proxy indicators of latrine defecation vary by individual-level characteristics.

Determinants of Latrine Use Behavior: The Psychosocial Proxies of Individual-Level Defecation Practices in Rural Coastal Ecuador.

There is increasing appreciation that latrine access does not imply use-many individuals who own latrines do not consistently use them. Little is known, however, about the determinants of latrine use, particularly among those with variable defecation behaviors. Using the integrated behavior model of water, sanitation, and hygiene framework, we sought to characterize determinants of latrine use in rural Ecuador. We interviewed 197 adults living in three communities with a survey consisting of 70 psychosocial defecation-related questions. Questions were excluded from analysis if responses lacked variability or at least 10% of respondents did not provide a definitive answer. All interviewed individuals had access to a privately owned or shared latrine. We then applied adaptive elastic nets (ENET) and supervised principal component analysis (SPCA) to a reduced dataset of 45 questions among 154 individuals with complete data to select determinants that predict self-reported latrine use. Latrine use was common, but not universal, in the sample (76%). The SPCA model identified six determinants and adaptive ENET selected five determinants. Three indicators were represented in both models-latrine users were more likely to report that their latrine is clean enough to use and also more likely to report daily latrine use; while those reporting that elderly men were not latrine users were less likely to use latrines themselves. Our findings suggest that social norms are important predictors of latrine use, whereas knowledge of the health benefits of sanitation may not be as important. These determinants are informative for promotion of latrine adoption.

Saneamento básico e desigualdades de cor/raça em domicílios urbanos com a presença de crianças menores de 5 anos, com foco na população indígena / Basic sanitation and inequalities in color/race in urban households with under-five children, with a focus on the indigenous population / Saneamiento básico y desigualdades de color/raza en domicilios urbanos con presencia de niños menores de 5 años, centrándose en población indígena

Resumo: Objetivou-se analisar a presença dos serviços de saneamento básico em domicílios com crianças de até cinco anos de idade, localizados em áreas urbanas do Brasil, com foco nos indígenas. Trata-se de um estudo transversal com base na amostra do Censo Demográfico de 2010. Calcularam-se as frequências de domicílios com abastecimento de água (rede geral), esgotamento sanitário (rede geral ou fossa séptica) e coleta de lixo (diretamente ou por caçamba do serviço público de limpeza). Modelos de regressão logística múltipla (RLM) estimaram a associação entre cor/raça e presença dos serviços por meio das razões de chance (RC). Foram consideradas as áreas urbanas e regiões metropolitanas do país, estratificando os resultados por região. Utilizou-se nível de significância de 5%. As menores frequências foram encontradas para esgotamento sanitário e, em geral, para os indígenas. Nas análises de RLM foram 29 comparações (48,3%) em que os domicílios com crianças indígenas, quando comparados às outras categorias de cor/raça, encontram-se em desvantagem, em especial no Sul, onde todas as comparações foram negativas para os indígenas. Resultados semelhantes foram encontrados para as regiões metropolitanas. Nesse sentido, os resultados coligidos por este trabalho sugerem a possível existência de iniquidades relacionadas à presença dos serviços de saneamento básico e cor/raça dos indivíduos, em que os indígenas, em geral, ocupam posição de desvantagem, particularmente no Sul do país. Diante da relação entre saneamento e saúde já estabelecida na literatura, esses resultados podem explicar, em parte, os baixos níveis de saúde apresentados por crianças indígenas no Brasil.

Abstract: This study aimed to analyze the presence of basic sanitation services in households with children under five years of age located in urban areas of Brazil, with a focus on indigenous children. This cross-sectional study was based on data from the 2010 Population Census. We calculated the rates of households with running water (public system), sewage disposal (public system or septic tanks), and garbage collection (directly or via public dumpsters). Multiple logistic regression (MLR) models were used to estimate associations between color/race and presence of sanitation services, based on odds ratios (OR). The study considered Brazil's urban metropolitan areas and stratified the results by major geographic region. Significance was set at 5%. The lowest frequencies were for sewage disposal, and all the rates were lower for indigenous people. MLR analyses included 29 comparisons (48.3%) in which households with indigenous children (compared to other color/race categories) were at a disadvantage, especially in the South of Brazil, where all comparisons were negative for indigenous households. Similar results appeared in metropolitan areas. The results thus suggest inequalities basic sanitation services based on color/race, where indigenous people are generally at a disadvantage, especially in the South of Brazil. Given the relationship between sanitation and health, as already demonstrated in the literature, these results can partly explain the low health levels in indigenous children in Brazil.

Resumen: El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar la presencia de servicios de saneamiento básico en domicilios con niños de hasta cinco años de edad, localizados en áreas urbanas de Brasil, enfocándose en los de origen indígena. Se trata de un estudio transversal, basado en la muestra del Censo Demográfico de 2010. Se calcularon las frecuencias de domicilios con abastecimiento de agua (red general), alcantarillado (red general o fosa séptica) y recogida de basura (directamente o mediante camiones de basura del servicio público de limpieza). Los modelos de regresión logística múltiple (RLM) estimaron la asociación entre color/raza, y la presencia de los servicios se realizó a través de las razones de oportunidad (RC). Se consideraron áreas urbanas y regiones metropolitanas del país, estratificando los resultados por región. Se utilizó un nivel de significancia del 5%. Las frecuencias menores se encontraron en el alcantarillado y, en general, respecto a los indígenas. En los análisis de RLM se realizaron 29 comparaciones (48,3%) en las que los domicilios con niños indígenas, cuando se comparan con otras categorías de color/raza, se encuentran en desventaja, en especial en el Sur, donde todas las comparaciones fueron negativas en relación con los indígenas. Resultados semejantes se encontraron respecto a las regiones metropolitanas. En ese sentido, los resultados recopilados por este estudio sugieren la posible existencia de inequidades relacionadas con la presencia de los servicios de saneamiento básico y color/raza de los individuos, donde los indígenas, en general, ocupan una posición de desventaja, particularmente en el Sur del país. Ante la relación entre saneamiento y salud, ya establecidos en la literatura, estos resultados pueden explicar, en parte, los bajos niveles de salud presentados por niños indígenas en Brasil.