Illness and infection in elite full-contact football-code sports: A systematic review.

OBJECTIVES: Full-contact football-code team sports offer a unique environment for illness risk. During training and match-play, players are exposed to high-intensity collisions which may result in skin-on-skin abrasions and transfer of bodily fluids. Understanding the incidence of all illnesses and infections and what impact they cause to time-loss from training and competition is important to improve athlete care within these sports. This review aimed to systematically report, quantify and compare the type, incidence, prevalence and count of illnesses across full-contact football-code team sports. DESIGN/METHODS: A systematic search of Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO and CINAHL electronic databases was performed from inception to October 2019; keywords relating to illness, athletes and epidemiology were used. Studies were excluded if they did not quantify illness or infection, involve elite athletes, investigate full-contact football-code sports or were review articles. RESULTS: Twenty-eight studies met the eligibility criteria. Five different football-codes were reported: American football (n=10), Australian rules football (n=3), rugby league (n=2), rugby sevens (n=3) and rugby union (n=9). One multi-sport study included both American football and rugby union. Full-contact football-code athletes are most commonly affected by respiratory system illnesses. There is a distinct lack of consensus of illness monitoring methodology. CONCLUSIONS: Full-contact football-code team sport athletes are most commonly affected by respiratory system illnesses. Due to various monitoring methodologies, illness incidence could only be compared between studies that used matching incidence exposure measures. High-quality illness surveillance data collection is an essential component to undertake effective and targeted illness prevention in athletes.

Outbreak of community-acquired Staphylococcus aureus skin infections in an Australian professional football team.

OBJECTIVES: Skin and soft tissue infections commonly affect athletes and can lead to cluster outbreaks if not managed appropriately. We report the findings of an investigation into an outbreak of community-acquired Staphylococcus aureus infection in an Australian professional football team. DESIGN: Retrospective cross-sectional study. METHODS: Nose, axilla, groin and throat swab were collected from 47 participants. MRSA and MSSA isolates underwent antibiotic susceptibility testing, binary typing and whole genome sequencing. Infection control practitioners (ICPs) investigated the training grounds for risk factors in the transmission of S. aureus. RESULTS: Almost half of the participants (n=23, 48.9%) were found to be colonised with MSSA. An outbreak cluster of MRSA ST5 closely related to the fusidic acid-resistant New Zealand NZAK3 clone was identified in a group of four players. MSSA ST15 and MSSA ST291 strains were found to have colonised and spread between two and five players, respectively. All participants were advised to undergo decolonisation treatment consisting of 4% chlorhexidine body wash and mupirocin nasal ointment for ten days. The ICP team identified several unhygienic practices within the club's shared facilities that may have played a role in the transmission of S. aureus. CONCLUSIONS: We report for the first time a community-associated S. aureus outbreak involving the highly successful fusidic acid-resistant MRSA ST5 clone in a professional football club associated with inadequate hygiene procedures. Management and prevention of S. aureus relies heavily on hygiene education and adherence to personal and environmental hygiene practices and policies.

Longitudinal, strain-specific Staphylococcus aureus introduction and transmission events in households of children with community-associated meticillin-resistant S aureus skin and soft tissue infection: a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Devising effective, targeted approaches to prevent recurrent meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) skin and soft tissue infection requires an understanding of factors driving MRSA acquisition. We comprehensively defined household longitudinal, strain-level S aureus transmission dynamics in households of children with community-associated MRSA skin and soft tissue infection. METHODS: From 2012-15, otherwise healthy paediatric patients with culture-confirmed, community-onset MRSA infections were recruited for the Household Observation of MRSA in the Environment (HOME) prospective cohort study from hospitals and community practices in metropolitan St Louis (MO, USA). Children with health-care-related risk factors were excluded, as determined by evidence of recent hospital admission, an invasive medical device, or residence in a long-term care facility. Household contacts (individuals sleeping in the home ≥four nights per week) and indoor dogs and cats were also enrolled. A baseline visit took place at the index patient's primary home, followed by four quarterly visits over 12 months. At each visit, interviews were done and serial cultures were collected, to detect S aureus from three anatomic sites of household members, two anatomic sites on dogs and cats, and 21 environmental surfaces. Molecular typing was done by repetitive-sequence PCR to define distinct S aureus strains within each household. Longitudinal, multivariable generalised mixed-effects logistic regression models identified factors associated with S aureus acquisition. FINDINGS: Across household members, pets, and environmental surfaces, 1267 strain acquisition events were observed. Acquisitions were driven equally by 510 introductions of novel strains into households and 602 transmissions within households, each associated with distinct factors. Frequent handwashing decreased the likelihood of novel strain introduction into the household (odds ratio [OR] 0·86, credible interval [CrI] 0·74-1·01). Transmission recipients were less likely to own their homes (OR 0·77, CrI 0·63-0·94) and were more likely to share bedrooms with strain-colonised individuals (OR 1·33, CrI 1·12-1·58), live in homes with higher environmental S aureus contamination burden (OR 3·97, CrI 1·96-8·20), and report interval skin and soft tissue infection (OR 1·32, CrI 1·07-1·64). Transmission sources were more likely to share bath towels (OR 1·25, CrI 1·01-1·57). Pets were often transmission recipients, but rarely the sole transmission source. INTERPRETATION: The household environment plays a key role in transmission, a factor associated with skin and soft tissue infection. Future interventions should inclusively target household members and the environment, focusing on straightforward changes in hand hygiene and household sharing behaviours. FUNDING: National Institutes of Health, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Children's Discovery Institute, Burroughs Wellcome Foundation, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency.

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius catheter-related bloodstream infection after exposure to domestic dogs and a cat.

We report a case of a catheter-related bloodstream infection due to oxacillin-susceptible Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in a patient receiving haemodialysis who possibly acquired the organism from her pets. Because of persistent bacteremia and the organism's ability to form biofilm, catheter removal and antimicrobial therapy were indicated to attain source control. Both clinical and microbiological cure were confirmed. Catheter care education should include information about pet exposure and the possibility of zoonotic infections.

Circulation of a community healthcare-associated multiply-resistant meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus lineage in South Yorkshire identified by whole genome sequencing.

BACKGROUND: A cluster of seven cases of skin and wound infections caused by a multiply resistant meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) were detected in a small-town community in South Yorkshire. Initial microbiological investigations showed that all isolates belonged to a spa type observed rarely in England (t1476). AIM: To describe the epidemiology of t1476 MRSA in South Yorkshire. METHODS: Retrospective and prospective case ascertainment was promoted through communication with local microbiology laboratories. Public health investigation included a detailed review of clinical notes for a subset of nine cases. Genomic and phylogenetic analysis was undertaken on t1476 MRSA. FINDINGS: Thirty-two cases of t1476 MRSA infection or colonization were identified between December 2014 and February 2018. Cases were older adults (aged 50-98 years). Healthcare exposures for a subset of nine cases indicated frequent contact with a team of district nurses, with all but one case receiving treatment on the same day as another case prior to their own diagnosis. No cases were admitted to hospital at the time of specimen collection. Despite detailed investigations, no carriers were detected among district nursing staff. A long-term carrier/super-shedder was not found. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that t1476 MRSA cases from South Yorkshire were monophyletic and distant from both MRSA of the same lineage from elsewhere in the UK (N = 15) and from publicly available sequences from Tanzania. CONCLUSION: Genomic and epidemiological analyses indicate community-based transmission of a multiply resistant MRSA clone within South Yorkshire introduced around 2012-2013, prior to the detection of a spatial-temporal cluster associated with a distinct risk group. Surveillance data indicate continued circulation.

Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus: The Effects Are More Than Skin Deep.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the psychosocial effects of a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) diagnosis on the households of children with MRSA skin and soft tissue infection (SSTI). STUDY DESIGN: We constructed and administered an interview to the primary caregiver within the home of a child with a history of MRSA SSTI. RESULTS: Seventy-six households were enrolled. Survey responses were analyzed and grouped into 4 themes: health behavior changes, disclosure, social interactions, and knowledge/awareness. The most common theme was disclosure; 91% of participants reported sharing their child's MRSA diagnosis with someone outside of the household. Forty-two percent of respondents reported a change in the manner in which household contacts interacted as a result of the index patient's MRSA diagnosis, including isolating the index patient from other children in the household. Many households reported adopting enhanced personal hygiene behaviors and environmental cleaning routines. Thirty-eight percent of participating households reported altering how they interact with people outside of their home, largely to avoid spreading MRSA to vulnerable individuals. In addition, many participants perceived that others regarded them with caution, especially at daycare, whereas other affected households were excluded from family gatherings. CONCLUSION: Primary caregivers of children with MRSA SSTI reported changing their health behaviors, altering their interactions with people outside of their home, and feeling isolated by others in response to their child's MRSA diagnosis. The findings of our study highlight a need for community interventions and education to prevent the negative psychosocial repercussions associated with MRSA.

Bathing hospitalized dependent patients with prepackaged disposable washcloths instead of traditional bath basins: A case-crossover study.

BACKGROUND: Basins used for patient bathing have been shown to be contaminated with multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs) and have prompted the evaluation of alternatives to soap and water bathing methods. METHODS: We conducted a prospective, randomized, open-label interventional crossover study to assess the impact of replacing traditional bath basins with prepackaged washcloths on the incidence of hospital-associated infections (HAIs), MDROs, and secondarily, rates of skin deterioration. Unit-wide use of disposable washcloths over an 8-month period was compared with an 8-month period of standard care using basins. RESULTS: A total of 2,637 patients were included from 2 medical-surgical units at a single tertiary medical center, contributing 16,034 patient days. During the study period, there were a total of 33 unit-acquired infections, the rates of which were not statistically different between study phases (incidence rate ratio, 1.05; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.50-2.23; P = .88). However, occurrence of skin integrity deterioration was significantly less in the intervention group (odds ratio, 0.44; 95% CI, 0.22-0.88; P = .02). CONCLUSIONS: Although we were unable to demonstrate a significant reduction in HAI or MDRO acquisition, we found a decrease in skin deterioration with the use of disposable washcloths and confirmed earlier findings of MDRO contamination of wash basins.

Genomic Characterization of USA300 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) to Evaluate Intraclass Transmission and Recurrence of Skin and Soft Tissue Infection (SSTI) Among High-Risk Military Trainees.

BACKGROUND: Military trainees are at increased risk for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) skin and soft tissue infection (SSTI). Whole genome sequencing (WGS) can refine our understanding of MRSA transmission and microevolution in congregate settings. METHODS: We conducted a prospective case-control study of SSTI among US Army infantry trainees at Fort Benning, Georgia, from July 2012 to December 2014. We identified clusters of USA300 MRSA SSTI within select training classes and performed WGS on clinical isolates. We then linked genomic, phylogenetic, epidemiologic, and clinical data in order to evaluate intra- and interclass disease transmission. Furthermore, among cases of recurrent MRSA SSTI, we evaluated the intrahost relatedness of infecting strains. RESULTS: Nine training classes with ≥5 cases of USA300 MRSA SSTI were selected. Eighty USA300 MRSA clinical isolates from 74 trainees, 6 (8.1%) of whom had recurrent infection, were subjected to WGS. We identified 2719 single nucleotide variants (SNVs). The overall median (range) SNV difference between isolates was 173 (1-339). Intraclass median SNV differences ranged from 23 to 245. Two phylogenetic clusters were suggestive of interclass MRSA transmission. One of these clusters stemmed from 2 classes that were separated by a 13-month period but housed in the same barracks. Among trainees with recurrent MRSA SSTI, the intrahost median SNV difference was 7.5 (1-48). CONCLUSIONS: Application of WGS revealed intra- and interclass transmission of MRSA among military trainees. An interclass cluster between 2 noncontemporaneous classes suggests a long-term reservoir for MRSA in this setting.

CA-MRSA Decolonization Strategies: Do They Reduce Recurrence Rate?

BACKGROUND: Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus commonly presents as a skin and soft tissue infection. Recurrence of the infection is common even after incision and drainage of the affected area. OBJECTIVE: This Evidence-Based Report Card reviews whether decolonization strategies will reduce the rate of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin and soft tissue infection (MRSA-SSTI) recurrence or colonization in patients with a history of MRSA-SSTI. METHODS: A systematic review of the literature was conducted from 1987 to the present day. The studies that were evaluated included individuals with recurrent skin and soft tissue infections that used decolonization procedures to decrease recurrence. The literature search generated 754 articles. Of these, 288 articles were eliminated due to duplication. Of the 466 remaining citations, 372 were not relevant. Of the remaining 94 full-text articles, 12 met the inclusion criteria. These studies were then reviewed and findings synthesized. FINDINGS: Four studies found topical decolonization procedures were effective in reducing colonization rates. Of the studies that used combination decolonization therapy, 3 of 4 studies showed a decrease in colonization rate. Despite successful decolonization, the rate of SSTI recurrence did not decrease. Two studies that showed a decrease in SSTI recurrence utilized different study parameters. In one study, the decolonization regimen was completed monthly over 1 year. The other study treated family members in addition to the affected individual. Currently, there is insufficient evidence to support the routine use of topical or systemic decolonization regimens to decrease recurrent SSTIs in individuals with a history of MRSA-SSTI. CONCLUSION: The focus of decolonization should be focused on the prevention and spread of infection. Hygiene education should be provided to patients, household members, and close contacts to reduce infection rates.

Strategies for Prevention of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Infections and Decolonization.

Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) invasive infections can be severe in the pediatric population with high morbidity and mortality. MRSA colonization can predispose to recurrent skin and soft tissue infections and invasive MRSA disease and is a frequent challenge faced by clinicians. This article reviews the importance of MRSA as a pathogen, MRSA colonization and various MRSA decolonization strategies.

Role of Nasal Staphylococcus aureus Carriage in Transmission among Contact Athletes.

Among athletes, Staphylococcus aureus is thought to be transmitted by close physical contact with carriers. Nevertheless, evidence is limited with regard to both the tracking of individual strains and the role of S. aureus on the skin's surface. We investigated its transmission using molecular genotyping and the presence of S. aureus on the skin during exercise. In the first study, nasal samples were obtained from 172 athletes over a period of up to one year. The 200 strains of S. aureus collected from these athletes were genotyped, and transmission of S. aureus was detected by phage open reading frame typing (POT). In the second study, the presence of S. aureus on the skin's surface was compared between nasal carriers (n=9) and non-nasal carriers (n=9), who had participated in the first study. In the first study, 10 cases of transmission were confirmed. In the second study, exercise-induced sweating increased S. aureus isolates from the skin's surface (before vs. after exercise: 5.2±5.4 vs. 41.7±40.6 CFU/ml) in nasal carriers. In 5 of 9 nasal carriers, S. aureus isolates from the skin's surface were clonally identical to those from the nares. These results identify a major route of S. aureus transmission among athletes and provide insight into the role played by exercise-induced sweating in nasal carriers.

Prevention of Recurrent Staphylococcal Skin Infections.

Staphylococcus aureus infections pose a significant health burden. The emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant S aureus has resulted in an epidemic of skin and soft tissue infections (SSTI), and many patients experience recurrent SSTI. As S aureus colonization is associated with subsequent infection, decolonization is recommended for patients with recurrent SSTI or in settings of ongoing transmission. S aureus infections often cluster within households, and asymptomatic carriers serve as reservoirs for transmission; therefore, a household approach to decolonization is more effective than measures performed by individuals alone. Novel strategies for the prevention of recurrent SSTI are needed.

A national survey of skin infections, care behaviors and MRSA knowledge in the United States.

A nationally representative sample of approximately 2000 individuals was surveyed to assess SSTI infections over their lifetime and then prospectively over six-months. Knowledge of MRSA, future likelihood to self-treat a SSTI and self-care behaviors was also queried. Chi square tests, linear and multinomial regression were used for analysis. About 50% of those with a reported history of a SSTI typical of MRSA had sought medical treatment. MRSA knowledge was low: 28% of respondents could describe MRSA. Use of protective self-care behaviors that may reduce transmission, such as covering a lesion, differed with knowledge of MRSA and socio-demographics. Those reporting a history of a MRSA-like SSTI were more likely to respond that they would self-treat than those without such a history (OR 2.05 95% CI 1.40, 3.01; p<0.001). Since half of respondents reported not seeking care for past lesions, incidence determined from clinical encounters would greatly underestimate true incidence. MRSA knowledge was not associated with seeking medical care, but was associated with self-care practices that may decrease transmission.

[Cluster outbreak of MRSA in the community; recognition and approach]. / Clusteruitbraak MRSA buiten het ziekenhuis; herkennen en aanpakken.

BACKGROUND: Community-acquired infection with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) mainly affects healthy young people, without health-care related risk factors for MRSA. Patients often present with skin and soft-tissue infections. CASE DESCRIPTION: An 18-year-old woman presented at the casualty department with recurrent purulent skin infections. She proved to be MRSA-positive. Within 6 months, 2 people around her also developed an MRSA infection. Culture showed CA-MRSA, with an identical strain (spa type: t008). Additional screening within her immediate circle identified 4 carriers, 2 of whom had corresponding skin infections. CONCLUSION: Cluster outbreaks of CA-MRSA require a coordinated approach from both the treating physician and the public health services. The choice of additional investigation among the circle of contacts was the determining factor in breaking the cycle of transmission and reinfection within this cluster.

Skin infections in young people (aged 14-18 years): an integrative review.

Skin infections are a major cause of preventable hospitalization, with young people being particularly susceptible. Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) infection typically presents as skin infection. CA-MRSA infection rates have increased rapidly in the past decade. Exploration of literature specific to young people aged 14-18 years is therefore timely. Integrative review using the methods described by Whittemore and Knafl was undertaken. Electronic databases of Medline, CINAHL, Scopus, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Google databases were searched for English-language articles published after 1990. Twenty primary studies were included and the findings are reported here. Data analysis revealed factors influencing skin infections in young people may be host-, transmission-, or pathogen-specific. Strategies to address host and transmission factors may be effective in controlling skin infection rates in young people.

Dam-to-offspring transmission and persistence of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius clones within dog families.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is an opportunistic pathogen that causes mainly skin infections in dogs. Although vertical transmission of S. pseudintermedius strains from dam to offspring has been reported, the persistence of the dam's strains in offspring over long periods of time is virtually unknown. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate to what extent S. pseudintermedius clones resident on the dam may be transmitted to and persist in offspring. ANIMALS: A total of 18 dogs and 50 of their offspring, which had been separated from their mother for between 1 month and 9 years, were enrolled in the study. METHODS: Mouth and perineal swabs taken from all dogs were subjected to selective enrichment and plating on blood agar. Presumptive S. pseudintermedius colonies were confirmed by a species-specific PCR and typed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. RESULTS: Staphylococcus pseudintermedius was isolated from both the dam and at least one offspring in 12 of the 18 dog families. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis confirmed carriage of indistinguishable or closely related strains in the dam and offspring within four families, despite the fact that they had lived separately for between 2 and 48 months before sampling. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Our results indicate that S. pseudintermedius clones that are transmitted from the dam to the puppies around birth may persist in the offspring for long periods of time. The study contributes to the current understanding of the mechanisms of spread of S. pseudintermedius in dogs and highlights the need for research to elucidate the role of bacterial and host genetic factors in colonization.

Prolonged outbreak of Staphylococcus aureus surgical site infection traced to a healthcare worker with psoriasis.

BACKGROUND: Meticillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) is a frequent cause of surgical site infection (SSI), but point-source outbreaks are rarely recognized. AIM: To describe an outbreak of MSSA SSI in a thoracic surgical unit. METHODS: An outbreak investigation was started following two postoperative bacteraemias with MSSA resistant to fusidic acid (MSSA FusR). Patients with MSSA FusR were identified from microbiology records and through prospective case finding. Healthcare workers (HCWs) were screened. Isolates were characterized by phage typing, spa typing, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and toxin gene profiling. A case-control study examined the association between one HCW with MSSA FusR and the patients involved in the outbreak. FINDINGS: Nineteen patients were identified with MSSA FusR over 16 months. Four isolates were available for typing and all belonged to the same lineage. Seventy-six HCWs were screened. One was a carrier of the outbreak strain (a nurse with psoriasis). All 19 cases were exposed to this HCW compared with only 40/66 controls (P = 0.003) and cases had a greater duration of exposure (P = 0.00001, chi-squared for trend). Direct patient contact was documented in 15 cases. The outbreak was halted by thorough cleaning of the ward and removal of the HCW from clinical duty. CONCLUSION: The HCW with psoriasis was the source of this outbreak. MSSA FusR may be a marker for strains associated with skin conditions. HCWs with significant skin conditions may pose an infection risk in surgical settings. Recommendations are made for occupational health teams regarding screening of HCWs with dermatitis.

A data-driven mathematical model of CA-MRSA transmission among age groups: evaluating the effect of control interventions.

Community associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) has become a major cause of skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) in the US. We developed an age-structured compartmental model to study the spread of CA-MRSA at the population level and assess the effect of control intervention strategies. We used Monte-Carlo Markov Chain (MCMC) techniques to parameterize our model using monthly time series data on SSTIs incidence in children (≤ 19 years) during January 2004 -December 2006 in Maricopa County, Arizona. Our model-based forecast for the period January 2007-December 2008 also provided a good fit to data. We also carried out an uncertainty and sensitivity analysis on the control reproduction number, Rc which we estimated at 1.3 (95% CI [1.2,1.4]) based on the model fit to data. Using our calibrated model, we evaluated the effect of typical intervention strategies namely reducing the contact rate of infected individuals owing to awareness of infection and decolonization strategies targeting symptomatic infected individuals on both [Formula: see text] and the long-term disease dynamics. We also evaluated the impact of hypothetical decolonization strategies targeting asymptomatic colonized individuals. We found that strategies focused on infected individuals were not capable of achieving disease control when implemented alone or in combination. In contrast, our results suggest that decolonization strategies targeting the pediatric population colonized with CA-MRSA have the potential of achieving disease elimination.