Endosomal trafficking defects alter neural progenitor proliferation and cause microcephaly.

Primary microcephaly and megalencephaly are severe brain malformations defined by reduced and increased brain size, respectively. Whether these two pathologies arise from related alterations at the molecular level is unclear. Microcephaly has been largely associated with centrosomal defects, leading to cell death. Here, we investigate the consequences of WDR81 loss of function, which causes severe microcephaly in patients. We show that WDR81 regulates endosomal trafficking of EGFR and that loss of function leads to reduced MAP kinase pathway activation. Mouse radial glial progenitor cells knocked-out for WDR81 exhibit reduced proliferation rate, subsequently leading to reduced brain size. These proliferation defects are rescued in vivo by expressing a megalencephaly-causing mutant form of Cyclin D2. Our results identify the endosomal machinery as an important regulator of proliferation rates and brain growth, demonstrating that microcephaly and megalencephaly can be caused by opposite effects on the proliferation rate of radial glial progenitors.

Ultrastructure of Endothelial Cells of Myocardial Capillaries in Burn Septicotoxemia.

We studied ultrastructure and vesicular structures in endothelial cells of myocardial micro-vessels in burn patients. Electron microscopy revealed a significant decrease in volume density of vesicular structures in the endotheliocytes of myocardial capillaries in patients with burn septicotoxemia. The observed structural signs of endothelial dysfunction revealed in this category of patients can be a promising area for further research and for the development of methods of pathogenetic correction of myocardial disorders in the case of burn injury.

Huntingtin-mediated axonal transport requires arginine methylation by PRMT6.

The huntingtin (HTT) protein transports various organelles, including vesicles containing neurotrophic factors, from embryonic development throughout life. To better understand how HTT mediates axonal transport and why this function is disrupted in Huntington's disease (HD), we study vesicle-associated HTT and find that it is dimethylated at a highly conserved arginine residue (R118) by the protein arginine methyltransferase 6 (PRMT6). Without R118 methylation, HTT associates less with vesicles, anterograde trafficking is diminished, and neuronal death ensues-very similar to what occurs in HD. Inhibiting PRMT6 in HD cells and neurons exacerbates mutant HTT (mHTT) toxicity and impairs axonal trafficking, whereas overexpressing PRMT6 restores axonal transport and neuronal viability, except in the presence of a methylation-defective variant of mHTT. In HD flies, overexpressing PRMT6 rescues axonal defects and eclosion. Arginine methylation thus regulates HTT-mediated vesicular transport along the axon, and increasing HTT methylation could be of therapeutic interest for HD.

Ablation of C9orf72 together with excitotoxicity induces ALS in rats.

Pathogenesis of familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) linked to expansion of the chromosome 9 open reading frame 72 (C9orf72) hexanucleotide repeat that impairs C9orf72 expression. Loss of function of the C9orf72 protein is one of the three main proposed C9orf72-related ALS mechanisms. However, C9orf72 loss of function, by itself, is insufficient to cause severe phenotypes in mice. Excitotoxicity is another major disease mechanism of ALS. We speculate that loss of C9orf72 protein might cause ALS in combination with excitotoxicity. To date, the effect of C9orf72 deficiency in the background of SD rat has not been examined. To test our hypothesis, we generated a line of rat with a deletion of part of the C9orf72 gene ablating the encoded protein. These animals did not develop any ALS phenotypes; however, when they were treated with kainic acid, an excitotoxicity inducer, the rats developed motor deficits and showed loss of motor neurons (MNs), Golgi complex fragmentation, and abnormal vesicle trafficking. RNA sequencing revealed profound changes in the gene profiles that were primarily associated with neural activity. Our results demonstrated that C9orf72 ablation alone was not enough to cause ALS pathogenesis in rat; but the ablation sensitized MNs to other risk factors that synergistically caused the ALS. These results support a loss of function of C9orf72 mechanism of ALS.

Modelling brain dopamine-serotonin vesicular transport disease in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Brain dopamine-serotonin vesicular transport disease is a rare disease caused by autosomal recessive mutations in the SLC18A2 gene, which encodes the VMAT2 protein. VMAT2 is a membrane protein responsible for vesicular transport of monoamines, and its disruption negatively affects neurotransmission. This results in a severe neurodevelopmental disorder affecting motor skills and development, and causes muscular hypotonia. The condition was initially described in a consanguineous Saudi Arabian family with affected siblings homozygous for a P387L mutation. We subsequently found a second mutation in a New Zealand family (homozygous P237H), which was later also identified in an Iraqi family. Pramipexole has been shown to have some therapeutic benefit. Transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans were developed to model the P237H and P387L mutations. Investigations into dopamine- and serotonin-related C. elegans phenotypes, including pharyngeal pumping and grazing, showed that both mutations cause significant impairment of these processes when compared with a non-transgenic N2 strain and a transgenic containing the wild-type human SLC18A2 gene. Preliminary experiments investigating the therapeutic effects of serotonin and pramipexole demonstrated that serotonin could successfully restore the pharyngeal pumping phenotype. These analyses provide further support for the role of these mutations in this disease.

Intracellular rupture, exocytosis and actin interaction of endocytic vacuoles in pancreatic acinar cells: initiating events in acute pancreatitis.

KEY POINTS: Giant trypsin-containing endocytic vacuoles are formed in pancreatic acinar cells stimulated with inducers of acute pancreatitis. F-actin envelops endocytic vacuoles and regulates their properties. Endocytic vacuoles can rupture and release their content into the cytosol of acinar cells. Endocytic vacuoles can fuse with the plasma membrane of acinar cells and exocytose their content. ABSTRACT: Intrapancreatic activation of trypsinogen is an early event in and hallmark of the development of acute pancreatitis. Endocytic vacuoles, which form by disconnection and transport of large post-exocytic structures, are the only resolvable sites of the trypsin activity in live pancreatic acinar cells. In the present study, we characterized the dynamics of endocytic vacuole formation induced by physiological and pathophysiological stimuli and visualized a prominent actin coat that completely or partially surrounded endocytic vacuoles. An inducer of acute pancreatitis taurolithocholic acid 3-sulphate and supramaximal concentrations of cholecystokinin triggered the formation of giant (more than 2.5 µm in diameter) endocytic vacuoles. We discovered and characterized the intracellular rupture of endocytic vacuoles and the fusion of endocytic vacuoles with basal and apical regions of the plasma membrane. Experiments with specific protease inhibitors suggest that the rupture of endocytic vacuoles is probably not induced by trypsin or cathepsin B. Perivacuolar filamentous actin (observed on the surface of ∼30% of endocytic vacuoles) may play a stabilizing role by preventing rupture of the vacuoles and fusion of the vacuoles with the plasma membrane. The rupture and fusion of endocytic vacuoles allow trypsin to escape the confinement of a membrane-limited organelle, gain access to intracellular and extracellular targets, and initiate autodigestion of the pancreas, comprising a crucial pathophysiological event.

Extracellular matrix internalization links nutrient signalling to invasive migration.

Integrins are the key mediators of cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) interaction, linking the ECM to the actin cytoskeleton. Besides localizing at the cell surface, they can be internalized and transported back to the plasma membrane (recycled) or delivered to the late endosomes/lysosomes for degradation. We and others have shown that integrin can be endocytosed together with their ECM ligands. In this short review, I will highlight how extracellular protein (including ECM) endocytosis impinges on the activation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, a master regulator of cell metabolism and growth. This supports the intriguing hypothesis that ECM components may be considered as nutrient sources, primarily under soluble nutrient-depleted conditions.

Increase in Pancreatic Proinsulin and Preservation of ß-Cell Mass in Autoantibody-Positive Donors Prior to Type 1 Diabetes Onset.

Type 1 diabetes is characterized by the loss of insulin production caused by ß-cell dysfunction and/or destruction. The hypothesis that ß-cell loss occurs early during the prediabetic phase has recently been challenged. Here we show, for the first time in situ, that in pancreas sections from autoantibody-positive (Ab+) donors, insulin area and ß-cell mass are maintained before disease onset and that production of proinsulin increases. This suggests that ß-cell destruction occurs more precipitously than previously assumed. Indeed, the pancreatic proinsulin-to-insulin area ratio was also increased in these donors with prediabetes. Using high-resolution confocal microscopy, we found a high accumulation of vesicles containing proinsulin in ß-cells from Ab+ donors, suggesting a defect in proinsulin conversion or an accumulation of immature vesicles caused by an increase in insulin demand and/or a dysfunction in vesicular trafficking. In addition, islets from Ab+ donors were larger and contained a higher number of ß-cells per islet. Our data indicate that ß-cell mass (and function) is maintained until shortly before diagnosis and declines rapidly at the time of clinical onset of disease. This suggests that secondary prevention before onset, when ß-cell mass is still intact, could be a successful therapeutic strategy.

Characterization of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan-positive Recycling Endosomes Isolated from Glioma Cells.

BACKGROUND: Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs)-dependent endocytic events have been involved in glioma progression. Thus, comprehensive understanding of the intracellular trafficking complexes formed in presence of HSPGs would be important for development of glioma treatments. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Subcellular fractionation was used to separate vesicles containing HSPGs from the rat C6 glioma cell line. Isolated HSPG-positive vesicles were further characterized with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. RESULTS: The HSPG-positive vesicular fractions, distinct from plasma membrane-derived material, were enriched in endocytic marker, Rab11. Proteomic analysis identified more than two hundred proteins to be associated with vesicular membrane, among them, over eighty were related to endosomal uptake, recycling or vesicular transport. CONCLUSION: Part of HSPGs in glioma cells is internalized through clathrin-dependent endocytosis and undergo recycling. The development of compounds regulating HSPG-mediated trafficking will likely enable design of effective glioma treatment.

Prion infection impairs lysosomal degradation capacity by interfering with rab7 membrane attachment in neuronal cells.

Prions are proteinaceous infectious particles which cause fatal neurodegenerative disorders in humans and animals. They consist of a mostly ß-sheeted aggregated isoform (PrP(Sc)) of the cellular prion protein (PrP(c)). Prions replicate autocatalytically in neurons and other cell types by inducing conformational conversion of PrP(c) into PrP(Sc). Within neurons, PrP(Sc) accumulates at the plasma membrane and in vesicles of the endocytic pathway. To better understand the mechanisms underlying neuronal dysfunction and death it is critical to know the impact of PrP(Sc) accumulation on cellular pathways. We have investigated the effects of prion infection on endo-lysosomal transport. Our study demonstrates that prion infection interferes with rab7 membrane association. Consequently, lysosomal maturation and degradation are impaired. Our findings indicate a mechanism induced by prion infection that supports stable prion replication. We suggest modulation of endo-lysosomal vesicle trafficking and enhancement of lysosomal maturation as novel targets for the treatment of prion diseases.

17ß-estradiol regulates giant vesicle formation via estrogen receptor-alpha in human breast cancer cells.

A significant proportion of the genes regulated by 17-beta-estradiol (E2) via estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) have roles in vesicle trafficking in breast cancer. Intracellular vesicle trafficking and extracellular vesicles have important roles in tumourigenesis. Here we report the discovery of giant (3-42µm) intracellular and extracellular vesicles (GVs) and the role of E2 on vesicle formation in breast cancer (BC) cell lines using three independent live cell imaging techniques. Large diameter vesicles, GVs were also identified in a patient-derived xenograft BC model, and in invasive breast carcinoma tissue. ERα-positive (MCF-7 and T47D) BC cell lines demonstrated a significant increase in GV formation after stimulation with E2 which was reversed by tamoxifen. ERα-negative (MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468) BC cell lines produced GVs independently of E2 and tamoxifen. These results indicate the existence of both intracellular and extracellular vesicles with considerably larger dimensions than generally recognised with BC cells and suggest that the GVs are regulated by E2 via ERα in ERα-positive BC but by E2-independent mechanisms in ER-ve BC.

Early axonal loss accompanied by impaired endocytosis, abnormal axonal transport, and decreased microtubule stability occur in the model of Krabbe's disease.

In Krabbe's disease (KD), a leukodystrophy caused by ß-galactosylceramidase deficiency, demyelination and a myelin-independent axonopathy contributes to the severe neuropathology. Beyond axonopathy, we show that in Twitcher mice, a model of KD, a decreased number of axons both in the PNS and in the CNS, and of neurons in dorsal root ganglia (DRG), occurred before the onset of demyelination. Despite the early axonal loss, and although in vitro Twitcher neurites degenerated over time, Twitcher DRG neurons displayed an initial neurite overgrowth and, following sciatic nerve injury, Twitcher axons were regeneration-competent, at a time point where axonopathy was already ongoing. Psychosine, the toxic substrate that accumulates in KD, induced lipid raft clustering. At the mechanistic level, TrkA recruitment to lipid rafts was dysregulated in Twitcher neurons, and defective activation of the ERK1/2 and AKT pathways was identified. Besides defective recruitment of signaling molecules to lipid rafts, the early steps of endocytosis and the transport of endocytic and synaptic vesicles were impaired in Twitcher DRG neurons. Defects in axonal transport, specifically in the retrograde component, correlated with decreased levels of dynein, abnormal levels of post-translational tubulin modifications and decreased microtubule stability. The identification of the axonal defects that precede demyelination in KD, together with the finding that Twitcher axons are regeneration-competent when axonopathy is already installed, opens new windows of action to effectively correct the neuropathology that characterizes this disorder.

Evidence for defective Rab GTPase-dependent cargo traffic in immune disorders.

A fully functional immune system is essential to protect the body against pathogens and other diseases, including cancer. Vesicular trafficking provides the correct localization of proteins within all cell types, but this process is most exquisitely controlled and coordinated in immune cells because of their specialized organelles and their requirement to respond to selected stimuli. More than 60 Rab GTPases play important roles in protein trafficking, but only five Rab-encoding genes have been associated with inherited human disorders, and only one of these (Rab27a) causes an immune defect. Mutations in RAB27A cause Griscelli Syndrome type 2 (GS2), an autosomal recessive disorder of pigmentation and severe immune deficiency. In lymphocytes, Munc13-4 is an effector of Rab27a, and mutations in the gene encoding this protein (UNC13D) cause Familial Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis Type 3 (FHL3). The immunological features of GS2 and FHL3 include neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, and immunodeficiency due to impaired function of cytotoxic lymphocytes. The small number of disorders caused by mutations in genes encoding Rabs could be due to their essential functions, where defects in these genes could be lethal. However, with the increasing use of next generation sequencing technologies, more mutations in genes encoding Rabs may be identified in the near future.

Induction of pulmonary hypertensive changes by extracellular vesicles from monocrotaline-treated mice.

AIMS: Circulating endothelium-derived extracellular vesicles (EV) levels are altered in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) but whether they are biomarkers of cellular injury or participants in disease pathogenesis is unknown. Previously, we found that lung-derived EVs (LEVs) induce bone marrow-derived progenitor cells to express lung-specific mRNA and protein. In this study, we sought to determine whether LEV or plasma-derived EV (PEV) alter pulmonary vascular endothelial or marrow progenitor cell phenotype to induce pulmonary vascular remodelling. METHODS AND RESULTS: LEV, PEV isolated from monocrotaline (MCT-EV)- or vehicle-treated mice (vehicle-EV) were injected into healthy mice. Right ventricular (RV) hypertrophy and pulmonary vascular remodelling were assessed by RV-to-body weight (RV/BW) and blood vessel wall thickness-to-diameter (WT/D) ratios. RV/BW, WT/D ratios were elevated in MCT- vs. vehicle-injected mice (1.99 ± 0.09 vs. 1.04 ± 0.09 mg/g; 0.159 ± 0.002 vs. 0.062 ± 0.009%). RV/BW, WT/D ratios were higher in mice injected with MCT-EV vs. mice injected with vehicle-EV (1.63 ± 0.09 vs. 1.08 ± 0.09 mg/g; 0.113 ± 0.02 vs. 0.056 ± 0.01%). Lineage-depleted bone marrow cells incubated with MCT-EV and marrow cells isolated from mice infused with MCT-EV had greater expression of endothelial progenitor cell mRNAs and mRNAs abnormally expressed in PAH than cells incubated with vehicle-EV or isolated from vehicle-EV infused mice. MCT-EV induced an apoptosis-resistant phenotype in murine pulmonary endothelial cells and lineage-depleted bone marrow cells incubated with MCT-EV induced pulmonary hypertension when injected into healthy mice. CONCLUSIONS: EV from MCT-injured mice contribute to the development of MCT-induced pulmonary hypertension. This effect may be mediated directly by EV on the pulmonary vasculature or by differentiation of bone marrow cells to endothelial progenitor cells that induce pulmonary vascular remodelling.

Synaptic dysfunction in Parkinson's disease.

Activity-dependent modifications in synaptic efficacy, such as long-term depression (LTD) and long-term potentiation (LTP), represent key cellular substrates for adaptive motor control and procedural memory. The impairment of these two forms of synaptic plasticity in the nucleus striatum could account for the onset and the progression of motor and cognitive symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD), characterized by the massive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. In fact, both LTD and LTP are peculiarly controlled and modulated by dopaminergic transmission coming from nigrostriatal terminals. Changes in corticostriatal and nigrostriatal neuronal excitability may influence profoundly the threshold for the induction of synaptic plasticity, and changes in striatal synaptic transmission efficacy are supposed to play a role in the occurrence of PD symptoms. Understanding of these maladaptive forms of synaptic plasticity has mostly come from the analysis of experimental animal models of PD. A series of cellular and synaptic alterations occur in the striatum of experimental parkinsonism in response to the massive dopaminergic loss. In particular, dysfunctions in trafficking and subunit composition of glutamatergic NMDA receptors on striatal efferent neurons contribute to the clinical features of the experimental parkinsonism. Interestingly, it has become increasingly evident that in striatal spiny neurons, the correct assembly of NMDA receptor complex at the postsynaptic site is a major player in early phases of PD, and it is sensitive to distinct degrees of DA denervation. The molecular defects at the basis of PD progression may be not confined just at the postsynaptic neuron: accumulating evidences have recently shown that the genes linked to PD play a critical role at the presynaptic site. DA release into the synaptic cleft relies on a proper presynaptic vesicular transport; impairment of SV trafficking, modification of DA flow, and altered presynaptic plasticity have been described in several PD animal models. Furthermore, an impaired DA turnover has been described in presymptomatic PD patients. Thus, given the pathological events occurring precociously at the synapses of PD patients, post- and presynaptic sites may represent an adequate target for early therapeutic intervention.

Proteomic analysis of articular cartilage vesicles from normal and osteoarthritic cartilage.

OBJECTIVE: Articular cartilage vesicles (ACVs) are extracellular organelles found in normal articular cartilage. While they were initially defined by their ability to generate pathologic calcium crystals in cartilage of osteoarthritis (OA) patients, they can also alter the phenotype of normal chondrocytes through the transfer of RNA and protein. The purpose of this study was to analyze the proteome of ACVs from normal and OA human cartilage. METHODS: ACVs were isolated from cartilage samples from 10 normal controls and 10 OA patients. We identified the ACV proteomes using in-gel trypsin digestion, nanospray liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry analysis of tryptic peptides, followed by searching an appropriate subset of the Uniprot database. We further differentiated between normal and OA ACVs by Holm-Sidak analysis for multiple comparison testing. RESULTS: More than 1,700 proteins were identified in ACVs. Approximately 170 proteins satisfied our stringent criteria of having >1 representative peptide per protein present, and a false discovery rate of ≤5%. These proteins included extracellular matrix components, phospholipid binding proteins, enzymes, and cytoskeletal components, including actin. While few proteins were seen exclusively in normal or OA ACVs, immunoglobulins and complement components were present only in OA ACVs. Compared to normal ACVs, OA ACVs displayed decreases in matrix proteoglycans and increases in transforming growth factor ß-induced protein ßig-H3, DEL-1, vitronectin, and serine protease HtrA1 (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: These findings lend support to the concept of ACVs as physiologic structures in articular cartilage. Changes in OA ACVs are largely quantitative and reflect an altered matrix and the presence of inflammation, rather than revealing fundamental changes in composition.

Membrane bending energy and fusion pore kinetics in Ca(2+)-triggered exocytosis.

A fusion pore composed of lipid is an obligatory kinetic intermediate of membrane fusion, and its formation requires energy to bend membranes into highly curved shapes. The energetics of such deformations in viral fusion is well established, but the role of membrane bending in Ca(2+)-triggered exocytosis remains largely untested. Amperometry recording showed that during exocytosis in chromaffin and PC12 cells, fusion pores formed by smaller vesicles dilated more rapidly than fusion pores formed by larger vesicles. The logarithm of 1/(fusion pore lifetime) varied linearly with vesicle curvature. The vesicle size dependence of fusion pore lifetime quantitatively accounted for the nonexponential fusion pore lifetime distribution. Experimentally manipulating vesicle size failed to alter the size dependence of fusion pore lifetime. Manipulations of membrane spontaneous curvature altered this dependence, and applying the curvature perturbants to the opposite side of the membrane reversed their effects. These effects of curvature perturbants were opposite to those seen in viral fusion. These results indicate that during Ca(2+)-triggered exocytosis membrane bending opposes fusion pore dilation rather than fusion pore formation. Ca(2+)-triggered exocytosis begins with a proteinaceous fusion pore with less stressed membrane, and becomes lipidic as it dilates, bending membrane into a highly curved shape.

Primary ciliogenesis defects are associated with human astrocytoma/glioblastoma cells.

BACKGROUND: Primary cilia are non-motile sensory cytoplasmic organelles that have been implicated in signal transduction, cell to cell communication, left and right pattern embryonic development, sensation of fluid flow, regulation of calcium levels, mechanosensation, growth factor signaling and cell cycle progression. Defects in the formation and/or function of these structures underlie a variety of human diseases such as Alström, Bardet-Biedl, Joubert, Meckel-Gruber and oral-facial-digital type 1 syndromes. The expression and function of primary cilia in cancer cells has now become a focus of attention but has not been studied in astrocytomas/glioblastomas. To begin to address this issue, we compared the structure and expression of primary cilia in a normal human astrocyte cell line with five human astrocytoma/glioblastoma cell lines. METHODS: Cultured normal human astrocytes and five human astrocytoma/glioblastoma cell lines were examined for primary cilia expression and structure using indirect immunofluorescence and electron microscopy. Monospecific antibodies were used to detect primary cilia and map the relationship between the primary cilia region and sites of endocytosis. RESULTS: We show that expression of primary cilia in normal astrocytes is cell cycle related and the primary cilium extends through the cell within a unique structure which we show to be a site of endocytosis. Importantly, we document that in each of the five astrocytoma/glioblastoma cell lines fully formed primary cilia are either expressed at a very low level, are completely absent or have aberrant forms, due to incomplete ciliogenesis. CONCLUSIONS: The recent discovery of the importance of primary cilia in a variety of cell functions raises the possibility that this structure may have a role in a variety of cancers. Our finding that the formation of the primary cilium is disrupted in cells derived from astrocytoma/glioblastoma tumors provides the first evidence that altered primary cilium expression and function may be part of some malignant phenotypes. Further, we provide the first evidence that ciliogenesis is not an all or none process; rather defects can arrest this process at various points, particularly at the stage subsequent to basal body association with the plasma membrane.

Live axonal transport disruption by mutant huntingtin fragments in Drosophila motor neuron axons.

Huntington's Disease is a neurodegenerative condition caused by a polyglutamine expansion in the huntingtin (Htt) protein, which aggregates and also causes neuronal dysfunction. Pathogenic N-terminal htt fragments perturb axonal transport in vitro. To determine whether this occurs in vivo and to elucidate how transport is affected, we expressed htt exon 1 with either pathogenic (HttEx1Q93) or non-pathogenic (HttEx1Q20) polyglutamine tracts in Drosophila. We found that HttEx1Q93 expression causes axonal accumulation of GFP-tagged fast axonal transport vesicles in vivo and leads to aggregates within larval motor neuron axons. Time-lapse video microscopy, shows that vesicle velocity is unchanged in HttEx1Q93-axons compared to HttEx1Q20-axons, but vesicle stalling occurs to a greater extent. Whilst HttEx1Q93 expression did not affect locomotor behaviour, external heat stress unveiled a locomotion deficit in HttEx1Q93 larvae. Therefore vesicle transport abnormalities amidst axonal htt aggregation places a cumulative burden upon normal neuronal function under stressful conditions.

Neuropathology of the Mcoln1(-/-) knockout mouse model of mucolipidosis type IV.

The recently developed Mcoln1(-/-) knockout mouse provides a novel model for analyzing mucolipin 1 function and mucolipidosis type IV disease. Here we characterize the neuropathology of Mcoln1(-/-) mouse at the end stage. Evidence of ganglioside accumulation, including increases in GM2, GM3, and GD3 and redistribution of GM1, was found throughout the central nervous system (CNS) independent of significant cholesterol accumulation. Unexpectedly, colocalization studies using immunofluorescence confocal microscopy revealed that GM1 and GM2 were present in separate vesicles within individual neurons. While GM2 was significantly colocalized with LAMP2, consistent with late-endosomal/lysosomal processing, some GM2-immunoreactivity occurred in LAMP2-negative sites, suggesting involvement of other vesicular systems. P62/Sequestosome 1 (P62/SQSTM1) inclusions were also identified in the CNS of the Mcoln1(-/-) mouse, suggesting deficiencies in protein degradation. Glial cell activation was increased in brain, and there was evidence of reduced myelination in cerebral and cerebellar white matter tracts. Autofluorescent material accumulated throughout the brains of the knockout mice. Finally, axonal spheroids were prevalent in white matter tracts and Purkinje cell axons. This neuropathological characterization of the Mcoln1(-/-) mouse provides an important step in understanding how mucolipin 1 loss of function affects the CNS and contributes to mucolipidosis type IV disease.