Leptospirosis: Report from the task force on tropical diseases by the World Federation of Societies of Intensive and Critical Care Medicine.

Leptospirosis is a zoonosis caused by a gram negative aerobic spirochete of the genus Leptospira. It is acquired by contact with urine or reproductive fluids from infected animals, or by inoculation from contaminated water or soil. The disease has a global distribution, mainly in tropical and subtropical regions that have a humid, rainy climate and is also common in travelers returning from these regions. Clinical suspicion is critical for the diagnosis and it should be included in the differential diagnosis of any patient with a febrile hepatorenal syndrome in, or returning from endemic regions. The leptospiremic phase occurs early and thereafter there is an immunologic phase in which the most severe form, Weil's disease, occurs. In the latter, multiple organ dysfunction predominates. The appropriate diagnostic test depends on the stage of the disease and consists of direct and indirect detection methods and cultures. Severely ill patients need to be monitored in an ICU with appropriate anti-bacterial agents and early, aggressive and effective organ support. Antibiotic therapy consists of penicillins, macrolides or third generation cephalosporins.

[Gastrointestinal bleeding and acute hepatic failure by leptospirosis: an entity that should not be forgotten]. / Hemorragia digestiva e insuficiencia hepática aguda por leptospirosis: una entidad que no debemos olvidar.

Leptospirosis disease is caused by the spirochete Leptospira. It is a worldwide distribution zoonosis, with predominance in the tropics. In Spain, it is not frequent but some cases have been noticed especially in humid areas surrounded by rivers, lakes or ponds, such as Catalonia, Andalucia or the Valencian Community. It is transmitted by a variety of animals such as cows or rats, that are infected either by direct contact with these animals or their urine, or indirectly by consuming or being in contact with water contaminated by their urine. The clinical manifestations are very variable, being asymptomatic or not very symptomatic in most of the patients. Unusually, leptospirosis presents with a first phase with fever, myalgias, liver injury or different organs hemorrhage, followed by a second phase with the presence of jaundice due to hepatic failure. Weil's disease is a kind of severe leptospirosis characterized by hepatic failure with jaundice and acute renal failure, associated with high mortality rates.The diagnosis is based on serological techniques and DNA detection by PCR. The treatment consists of life support measures and antibiotic therapy. A patient with Weil's disease and leptospirosis digestive bleeding is presented, with a fulminant clinical course. In order to achieve an early diagnosis, the need to keep this entity in mind must be emphasized, especially in favorable epidemiological environments as the one of this patient.

Hemorragia digestiva e insuficiencia hepática aguda por leptospirosis: una entidad que no debemos olvidar / Gastrointestinal bleeding and acute hepatic failure by leptospirosis: an entity that should not be forgotten

La leptospirosis es una enfermedad causada por la espiroqueta Leptospira. Se trata de una zoonosis de distribución mundial, con predominio en los trópicos. En España no es frecuente pero sí se observan casos en zonas más húmedas o con presencia de ríos, lagos o estanques, como son Cataluña, Andalucía o la Comunidad Valenciana, donde se relaciona con los arrozales. Los transmisores son múltiples animales como vacas o ratas, contagiándose el ser humano mediante contacto directo con estos animales o su orina, o bien de forma indirecta al consumir o estar en contacto con agua contaminada por la orina de éstos. Las manifestaciones clínicas son muy variables, siendo asintomática o poco sintomática en la mayoría de los pacientes. Aunque no ocurre siempre, la leptospirosis cursa con una primera fase con fiebre, mialgias, afectación renal o hemorragia de distintos órganos, seguida de una segunda fase con presencia de ictericia por afectación hepática. La enfermedad de Weil es una forma de leptospirosis grave caracterizada por afectación hepática con ictericia e insuficiencia renal aguda, asociada a una considerable mortalidad. El diagnóstico se basa en técnicas serológicas y detección de DNA mediante PCR. El tratamiento consta de medidas de soporte y antibioticoterapia. Presentamos un paciente con enfermedad de Weil y hemorragia digestiva por leptospirosis, con una evolución clínica fulminante, y hacemos hincapié en la necesidad de tener presente esta entidad, especialmente en ambientes epidemiológicos favorables como el de este paciente, con el fin de lograr un diagnóstico precoz.

Leptospirosis disease is caused by the spirochete Leptospira. It is a worldwide distribution zoonosis, with predominance in the tropics. In Spain, it is not frequent but some cases have been noticed especially in humid areas surrounded by rivers, lakes or ponds, such as Catalonia, Andalucia or the Valencian Community. It is transmitted by a variety of animals such as cows or rats, that are infected either by direct contact with these animals or their urine, or indirectly by consuming or being in contact with water contaminated by their urine. The clinical manifestations are very variable, being asymptomatic or not very symptomatic in most of the patients. Unusually, leptospirosis presents with a first phase with fever, myalgias, liver injury or different organs hemorrhage, followed by a second phase with the presence of jaundice due to hepatic failure. Weil's disease is a kind of severe leptospirosis characterized by hepatic failure with jaundice and acute renal failure, associated with high mortality rates. The diagnosis is based on serological techniques and DNA detection by PCR. The treatment consists of life support measures and antibiotic therapy. A patient with Weil's disease and leptospirosis digestive bleeding is presented, with a fulminant clinical course. In order to achieve an early diagnosis, the need to keep this entity in mind must be emphasized, especially in favorable epidemiological environments as the one of this patient.

Comparative analysis of severe pediatric and adult leptospirosis in Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Although leptospirosis may be fatal in childhood, the experience of many clinicians working in disease-endemic areas is that classic Weil's disease and death are less common among pediatric patients. The aim of the study was to ascertain disease spectrum and outcome differences in severe pediatric and adult leptospirosis in a large at-risk population. Epidemiologic, clinical, and laboratory data were obtained on hospitalized cases from São Paulo during 2004-2006. A total of 42 case-patients < 18 years of age and 328 case-patients ≥ 18 years of age were tested during the study. Compared with children, adults had higher rates of jaundice (P = 0.01), elevated serum bilirubin levels (P < 0.01), oliguria (P = 0.02), and elevated creatinine levels (P = 0.01) but not for thrombocytopenia or pulmonary involvement. The overall case-fatality rate was 27% (adult) versus 5% (pediatric) (P < 0.01). Severe pediatric leptospirosis may be less likely to show all classic features of Weil's disease and may be less fatal than in adults.

Clinical and imaging manifestations of hemorrhagic pulmonary leptospirosis: a state-of-the-art review.

Leptospirosis, a spirochetal zoonosis, is frequently unrecognized due to its manifestation as an undifferentiated fever. It is an emerging infectious disease that has changed from an occupational disease of veterinarians, farmers, butchers, and other animal handlers to a cause of epidemics in poor and decayed urban communities in developing countries. Humans are infected when mucous membranes or abraded skin come into direct contact with the urine of infected animals, especially rats and dogs. Mortality from severe leptospirosis is high, even when optimal treatment is provided. The diagnosis of leptospirosis is based on clinical findings, history of direct or indirect exposure to infected animals in endemic areas, and positive serological tests. It should be considered in the differential diagnosis of patients with febrile illnesses associated with pneumonitis and respiratory failure, especially when hemoptysis is present. Severe pulmonary involvement in leptospirosis consists primarily of hemorrhagic pneumonitis. In advanced cases, adult respiratory distress syndrome and massive pulmonary hemorrhage may occur. Chest radiographs show bilateral alveolar infiltrates and/or resemble viral pneumonia, bronchopneumonia, tuberculosis, adult respiratory distress syndrome, and other causes of pulmonary hemorrhage such as Goodpasture syndrome. High-resolution computed tomography scans may show nodular infiltrates, areas of consolidation, ground-glass attenuation, and crazy-paving patterns. Bronchoalveolar lavage and autopsy studies have suggested that ground-glass opacities and air-space consolidations are secondary to pulmonary hemorrhage. Although not specific, the presence of these computed tomography findings in a febrile patient with an appropriate history should suggest a diagnosis of leptospirosis.

Síndrome de Weil y embarazo / Weil's disease at pregnancy

Se informa el caso de una paciente de 37 años de edad, con 34,4 semana de gestación, ingresada con el diagnóstico de síndrome febril agudo. Dados los antecedentes epidemiológicos, se halló, luego de una pesquisa adecuada, positividad para infección por Leptospira. Evolutivamente presentó íctero intenso y fallo renal agudo que necesitó de diálisis, lo cual mejoró la función renal y finalmente se recuperó la actividad hepática. Se concluyó que el cuadro era una forma de presentación del Síndrome de Weil durante el embarazo. El parto eutócico se presentó a las 34 sem con un recién nacido femenino de 2200 g con buena evolución.

Case of a patient aged 37 with 34, 4 weeks of gestation, admitted con a diagnosis of acute febrile syndrome. According to epidemiologic backgrounds, after a appropriate investigation, we found a positivity to infection from Leptospira. From the evolutionary point of view, she had intensive icterus and acute renal failure needing dialysis, which improved the renal function with recovery of hepatic activity. We conclude that picture was a presentation way of Weil's syndrome during pregnancy. Spontaneous labor occurred at 34 weeks with a female fetus weighing 2200 gr and a good evolution.

Hallazgo de infecciones concomitantes leptospira-fiebre amarilla y leptospira-dengue en casos de pacientes fallecidos con síndrome febril icterohemorrágico en Venezuela años 2003-2004 / Discovery of concurrent infections leptospira-yellow-fever and leptospira-dengue in cases of deceased patients with febrile icterus syndrome in Venezuela during 2003-2004

Como parte del programa de vigilancia epidemiológica del Ministerio de Salud y Desarrollo Social, el Instituto Nacional de Higiene "Rafael Rangel" realiza el diagnóstico diferencial de los síndromes febriles hemorrágicos e ictero-hemorrágicos, los cuales incluyen la determinación de leptospirosis, dengue, fiebre amarilla, hepatitis entre otros. En Venezuela se han presentado numerosos casos de dengue que mantienen los índices a nivel epidémico, contínuos brotes de leptospirosis y algunos brotes de fiebre amarilla en los dos últimos años. La participación en este programa de vigilancia permitió detectar 5 casos de fallecidos durante los años 2003 y 2004 con resultados de laboratorio que indicaban posibles infecciones concomitantes de leptospirosis con dengue o leptospirosis (N) con fiebre amarilla, lo que podría explicar la severidad de los cuadros clínicos y la muerte de los pacientes. De un total de cinco (5) casos que resultaron positivos a leptospirosis por la técnica PCR, cuatro (4) de ellos resultaron con IgM positiva a fiebre amarilla, y uno (1) con IgM y PCR positivo a dengue. Los cuatro (4) casos, IgM positivos a fiebre amarilla, tenían resultados histopatológicos compatibles a infección viral tipo fiebre amarilla y el caso N° 4 se logró confirmar el diagnóstico de fiebre amarilla por inmunohistoquímica. Este hallazgo indicaría que estamos en presencia de cuatro casos de coinfección leptospira-fiebre amarilla. Por otra parte, el último caso resultó positivo con la prueba de ELISA IgM para dengue con PCR positivos tanto a leptospira como a dengue y con una prueba género específica empleada en el diagnóstico precoz de la leptospirosis (antígeno TR) igualmente positiva, lo que indicaría igualmente un caso de coinfección leptospira-dengue. En la literatura científica existen reportes de posibles coinfecciones leptospira-dengue que no han sido bien documentadas, sin embargo, infecciones concomitantes entre leptospira y fiebre amarilla no han sido reportadas.

Leptospirosis-induced meningitis and acute renal failure in a 19-month-old male child.

An unusual case of leptospirosis is described in a 19-month-old male child presenting with meningitis and acute renal failure without jaundice. Some aspects concerning the pathogenesis and treatment of this potentially life-threatening disease are also discussed. Leptospirosis was diagnosed on the basis of history and serological tests.

Leptospirosis icteo-hemorragica / Leptospirosis

La leptospirosis es una enfermedad infecciosa aguda, poco frecuente, que se adquiere por contacto de aguas servidas y contaminadas por orina de ratas infectadas. Clínicamente se caracteriza por un síndrome febril agudo bimodal con compromiso hepático, renal y meníngeo asociada ocasionalmente a manifestaciones purpúricas y que cursa con leucocitosis y neutrofilia. El diagnóstico clínico se confirma bacteriológica y serológicamente. El tratamiento de elección es la penicilina en dosis diaria de 5 a 10 millones, administrada precozmente, lo que implica un alto índice de sospecha clínica.

[Seropositivity to leptospiras in sera from patients suspected of viral hepatitis negative to serological markers]. / Seropositividad a leptospiras en sueros de pacientes sospechosos de hepatitis viral negativos a marcadores serológicos.

The prevalence of leptospirosis found in icteric patients negative to serological markers for hepatitis was described. 15.99 % of them were positive patients. It was observed a predominance of serovars canicola, pomona and icterohaemorrhagiae.

Human and canine leptospirosis: serological data of São Paulo City, Brazil, 2000 to 2003.

Sera from humans and dogs were tested by microscopic agglutination test. Icterohaemorrhagiae was the predominant serogroup in both groups, associated with the infestation of Rattus norvegicus.

Weil's syndrome.

A case of leptospirosis in an 18-year-old white male was reported. Weil's syndrome was characterized by intense jaundice, acute renal failure, skin ecchymoses and conjunctival suffusion, in addition to meningitis. The polymerase chain reaction for Leptospira was negative, while the titers of the antibody microagglutination test against L. grippotyphosa rose higher than fourfold (up to 1:1,600) in the same blood sample. Patient's treatment consisted of rehydration and supportive care of acute renal failure, besides antibiotic therapy. Penicillin administration started after 6 days of disease. Patient improved without clinical sequelae.

Isolation of Salmonella enterica and serologic reactivity to Leptospira interrogans in opossums (Didelphis virginiana) from Yucatán, México.

The presence of Salmonella enterica and serologic evidence of infection by Leptospira interrogans, were detected in the opossum Didelphis virginiana in a semi-urban locality of the Yucatán State, México. Ninety-one opossums were captured during the period April 1996 and May 1998. From a total of 17 feces samples, four Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serotypes (Sandiego, Newport, Anatum, and Minnesota), and one Salmonella enterica subsp. arizonae serovar O44:Z4,Z23:- were isolated. Some opossums presented mixed infections. From 81 sera samples, four (4.9%) were positive to antibodies to Leptospira serovars pomona and wolfii. Both animals infected with Salmonella enterica and those serologically positive to Leptospira interrogans were captured in peridomestic habitat. Opossums infected with Salmonella enterica, were captured in dry season, and those seropositive to Leptospira interrogans during the rainy season. The implications of infection and reactivity of these zoonotic pathogens in D. virginiana in the Yucatan state are briefly discussed.

Leptospirosis mimicking sepsis after orthopedic surgery: a case report.

We report a case of leptospirosis that occurred after elective surgery involving tendon transfer and shoulder arthroscopy. The disease mimicked hospital infection after orthopedic surgery and was at first misdiagnosed as post-operative sepsis. The patient was 60 year old female that developed sepsis with hypotension, shock, bleeding, jaundice and renal insufficiency 4 hours after surgery. Shock treatment procedures were performed and broad spectrum antibiotic therapy was used with coverage for bacteria acquired in hospitals. A careful investigation was carried out by the Hospital Infection Control Service in search of the possible source of the infection. After clinical evaluation by a specialist in infectious diseases, the hypothesis of leptospirosis was put forward based on clinical and epidemiological data. The hypothesis was later confirmed by the positive result of serological tests with the microagglutination method that yielded 1:800 and then 1:12,600 7 days later. This is the first reported case of leptospirosis manifest directly following surgery, mimicking postoperative sepsis.

Leptospirosis in Latin America.

Leptospirosis is a common disease in Latin America. Transmission to humans occurs by contact with water or soil contaminated with the urine of rodents, dogs, or livestock. Pathogenesis is still poorly understood, and bacterial toxin or virulence factors are probably responsible for many features of the disease. The anicteric form is the most frequent presentation, and its clinical picture resembles influenza or other acute febrile diseases. Icterohemorrhagic leptospirosis, or Weil's syndrome, represents the severe form of the disease. Its clinical picture is similar to bacterial sepsis and multiple organ involvement occurs, mainly in kidneys and lungs, and causes great morbidity and mortality. Death is often related to multiple organ failure and pulmonary hemorrhages. Diagnosis is based on serology or blood, cerebrospinal fluid and urine cultures in specific media. Treatment involves a combination of antibiotics and supportive measures.

Enfermedad de Weil

Presentamos el caso de una mujer de 29 años, de un sector subnormal de Neiva con un cuadro de fiebre, dolores musculares, ictericia, hemorragia de vías digestivas, sin compromiso hemodinámico y falla renal aguda. La M.A.T. fue positiva para 4 serovars con títulos mayores de 1/800 diluciones. Este es uno de los pocos casos informados en la literatura, causada por múltiples serovars.