The role of immune modulators in age-related macular degeneration.

We provide an overview of the expanding literature on the role of cytokines and immune mediators in pathophysiology of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Although many immunological mediators have been linked to AMD pathophysiology, the broader mechanistic picture remains unclear with substantial variations in the levels of evidence supporting these mediators. Therefore, we reviewed the literature considering the varying levels of supporting evidence. A Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) term-based literature research was conducted in September, 2023, consisting of the MeSH terms "cytokine" and "Age-related macular degeneration" connected by the operator "AND". After screening the publications by title, abstract, and full text, a total of 146 publications were included. The proinflammatory cytokines IL-1ß (especially in basic research studies), IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, TNF-α, and MCP-1 are the most extensively characterised cytokines/chemokines, highlighting the role of local inflammasome activation and altered macrophage function in the AMD pathophysiology. Among the antiinflammatory mediators IL-4, IL-10, and TGF-ß were found to be the most extensively characterised, with IL-4 driving and IL-10 and TGF-ß suppressing disease progression. Despite the extensive literature on this topic, a profound understanding of AMD pathophysiology has not yet been achieved. Therefore, further studies are needed to identify potential therapeutic targets, followed by clinical studies.

Autofluorescence-based tissue characterization enhances clinical prospects of light-sheet-microscopy.

Light sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) is a transformative imaging method that enables the visualization of non-dissected specimen in real-time 3D. Optical clearing of tissues is essential for LSFM, typically employing toxic solvents. Here, we test the applicability of a non-hazardous alternative, ethyl cinnamate (ECi). We comprehensively characterized autofluorescence (AF) spectra in diverse murine tissues-ocular globe, knee, and liver-employing LSFM under various excitation wavelengths (405-785 nm) to test the feasibility of unstained samples for diagnostic purposes, in particular regarding percutaneous biopsies, as they constitute to most harvested type of tissue sample in clinical routine. Ocular globe structures were best discerned with 640 nm excitation. Knee tissue showed complex variation in AF spectra variation influenced by tissue depth and structure. Liver exhibited a unique AF pattern, likely linked to vasculature. Hepatic tissue samples were used to demonstrate the compatibility of our protocol for antibody staining. Furthermore, we employed machine learning to augment raw images and segment liver structures based on AF spectra. Radiologists rated representative samples transferred to the clinical assessment software. Learning-generated images scored highest in quality. Additionally, we investigated an actual murine biopsy. Our study pioneers the application of AF spectra for tissue characterization and diagnostic potential of optically cleared unstained percutaneous biopsies, contributing to the clinical translation of LSFM.

Differential cell type-specific function of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor and its repressor in diet-induced obesity and fibrosis.

OBJECTIVE: The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor regulating xenobiotic responses as well as physiological metabolism. Dietary AhR ligands activate the AhR signaling axis, whereas AhR activation is negatively regulated by the AhR repressor (AhRR). While AhR-deficient mice are known to be resistant to diet-induced obesity (DIO), the influence of the AhRR on DIO has not been assessed so far. METHODS: In this study, we analyzed AhRR-/- mice and mice with a conditional deletion of either AhRR or AhR in myeloid cells under conditions of DIO and after supplementation of dietary AhR ligands. Moreover, macrophage metabolism was assessed using Seahorse Mito Stress Test and ROS assays as well as transcriptomic analysis. RESULTS: We demonstrate that global AhRR deficiency leads to a robust, but not as profound protection from DIO and hepatosteatosis as AhR deficiency. Under conditions of DIO, AhRR-/- mice did not accumulate TCA cycle intermediates in the circulation in contrast to wild-type (WT) mice, indicating protection from metabolic dysfunction. This effect could be mimicked by dietary supplementation of AhR ligands in WT mice. Because of the predominant expression of the AhRR in myeloid cells, AhRR-deficient macrophages were analyzed for changes in metabolism and showed major metabolic alterations regarding oxidative phosphorylation and mitochondrial activity. Unbiased transcriptomic analysis revealed increased expression of genes involved in de novo lipogenesis and mitochondrial biogenesis. Mice with a genetic deficiency of the AhRR in myeloid cells did not show alterations in weight gain after high fat diet (HFD) but demonstrated ameliorated liver damage compared to control mice. Further, deficiency of the AhR in myeloid cells also did not affect weight gain but led to enhanced liver damage and adipose tissue fibrosis compared to controls. CONCLUSIONS: AhRR-deficient mice are resistant to diet-induced metabolic syndrome. Although conditional ablation of either the AhR or AhRR in myeloid cells did not recapitulate the phenotype of the global knockout, our findings suggest that enhanced AhR signaling in myeloid cells deficient for AhRR protects from diet-induced liver damage and fibrosis, whereas myeloid cell-specific AhR deficiency is detrimental.

TGF-ß specifies TFH versus TH17 cell fates in murine CD4+ T cells through c-Maf.

T follicular helper (TFH) cells are essential for effective antibody responses, but deciphering the intrinsic wiring of mouse TFH cells has long been hampered by the lack of a reliable protocol for their generation in vitro. We report that transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) induces robust expression of TFH hallmark molecules CXCR5 and Bcl6 in activated mouse CD4+ T cells in vitro. TGF-ß-induced mouse CXCR5+ TFH cells are phenotypically, transcriptionally, and functionally similar to in vivo-generated TFH cells and provide critical help to B cells. The study further reveals that TGF-ß-induced CXCR5 expression is independent of Bcl6 but requires the transcription factor c-Maf. Classical TGF-ß-containing T helper 17 (TH17)-inducing conditions also yield separate CXCR5+ and IL-17A-producing cells, highlighting shared and distinct cell fate trajectories of TFH and TH17 cells. We demonstrate that excess IL-2 in high-density T cell cultures interferes with the TGF-ß-induced TFH cell program, that TFH and TH17 cells share a common developmental stage, and that c-Maf acts as a switch factor for TFH versus TH17 cell fates in TGF-ß-rich environments in vitro and in vivo.

Determining individual glomerular proteinuria and periglomerular infiltration in a cleared murine kidney by a 3-dimensional fast marching algorithm.

Three-dimensional (3D) imaging has advanced basic research and clinical medicine. However, limited resolution and imperfections of real-world 3D image material often preclude algorithmic image analysis. Here, we present a methodologic framework for such imaging and analysis for functional and spatial relations in experimental nephritis. First, optical tissue-clearing protocols were optimized to preserve fluorescence signals for light sheet fluorescence microscopy and compensated attenuation effects using adjustable 3D correction fields. Next, we adapted the fast marching algorithm to conduct backtracking in 3D environments and developed a tool to determine local concentrations of extractable objects. As a proof-of-concept application, we used this framework to determine in a glomerulonephritis model the individual proteinuria and periglomerular immune cell infiltration for all glomeruli of half a mouse kidney. A correlation between these parameters surprisingly did not support the intuitional assumption that the most inflamed glomeruli are the most proteinuric. Instead, the spatial density of adjacent glomeruli positively correlated with the proteinuria of a given glomerulus. Because proteinuric glomeruli appear clustered, this suggests that the exact location of a kidney biopsy may affect the observed severity of glomerular damage. Thus, our algorithmic pipeline described here allows analysis of various parameters of various organs composed of functional subunits, such as the kidney, and can theoretically be adapted to processing other image modalities.

Cutting Edge: STING Induces ACLY Activation and Metabolic Adaptations in Human Macrophages through TBK1.

The 2'3'-cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP) synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of IFN genes (STING) pathway can sense infection and cellular stress by detecting cytosolic DNA. Upon ligand binding, cGAS produces the cyclic dinucleotide messenger cGAMP, which triggers its receptor STING. Active STING initiates gene transcription through the transcription factors IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) and NF-κB and induces autophagy, but whether STING can cause changes in the metabolism of macrophages is unknown. In this study, we report that STING signaling activates ATP-citrate lyase (ACLY) by phosphorylation in human macrophages. Using genetic and pharmacologic perturbation, we show that STING targets ACLY via its prime downstream signaling effector TANK (TRAF family member-associated NF-κB activator)-binding kinase 1 (TBK1). We further identify that TBK1 alters cellular metabolism upon cGAMP treatment. Our results suggest that STING-mediated metabolic reprogramming adjusts the cellular response to DNA sensing in addition to transcription factor activation and autophagy induction.

ß1 integrin signaling governs necroptosis via the chromatin-remodeling factor CHD4.

Fibrosis, characterized by sustained activation of myofibroblasts and excessive extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition, is known to be associated with chronic inflammation. Receptor-interacting protein kinase 3 (RIPK3), the central kinase of necroptosis signaling, is upregulated in fibrosis and contributes to tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-mediated inflammation. In bile-duct-ligation-induced liver fibrosis, we found that myofibroblasts are the major cell type expressing RIPK3. Genetic ablation of ß1 integrin, the major profibrotic ECM receptor in fibroblasts, not only abolished ECM fibrillogenesis but also blunted RIPK3 expression via a mechanism mediated by the chromatin-remodeling factor chromodomain helicase DNA-binding protein 4 (CHD4). While the function of CHD4 has been conventionally linked to the nucleosome-remodeling deacetylase (NuRD) and CHD4-ADNP-HP1(ChAHP) complexes, we found that CHD4 potently repressed a set of genes, including Ripk3, with high locus specificity but independent of either the NuRD or the ChAHP complex. Thus, our data uncover that ß1 integrin intrinsically links fibrotic signaling to RIPK3-driven inflammation via a novel mode of action of CHD4.

Interferon-induced IL-10 drives systemic T-cell dysfunction during chronic liver injury.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Patients with chronic liver disease (CLD), including cirrhosis, are at increased risk of intractable viral infections and are hyporesponsive to vaccination. Hallmarks of CLD and cirrhosis include microbial translocation and elevated levels of type I interferon (IFN-I). We aimed to investigate the relevance of microbiota-induced IFN-I in the impaired adaptive immune responses observed in CLD. METHODS: We combined bile duct ligation (BDL) and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) models of liver injury with vaccination or lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection in transgenic mice lacking IFN-I in myeloid cells (LysM-Cre IFNARflox/flox), IFNAR-induced IL-10 (MX1-Cre IL10flox/flox) or IL-10R in T cells (CD4-DN IL-10R). Key pathways were blocked in vivo with specific antibodies (anti-IFNAR and anti-IL10R). We assessed T-cell responses and antibody titers after HBV and SARS-CoV-2 vaccinations in patients with CLD and healthy individuals in a proof-of-concept clinical study. RESULTS: We demonstrate that BDL- and CCL4-induced prolonged liver injury leads to impaired T-cell responses to vaccination and viral infection in mice, subsequently leading to persistent infection. We observed a similarly defective T-cell response to vaccination in patients with cirrhosis. Innate sensing of translocated gut microbiota induced IFN-I signaling in hepatic myeloid cells that triggered excessive IL-10 production upon viral infection. IL-10R signaling in antigen-specific T cells rendered them dysfunctional. Antibiotic treatment and inhibition of IFNAR or IL-10Ra restored antiviral immunity without detectable immune pathology in mice. Notably, IL-10Ra blockade restored the functional phenotype of T cells from vaccinated patients with cirrhosis. CONCLUSION: Innate sensing of translocated microbiota induces IFN-/IL-10 expression, which drives the loss of systemic T-cell immunity during prolonged liver injury. IMPACT AND IMPLICATIONS: Chronic liver injury and cirrhosis are associated with enhanced susceptibility to viral infections and vaccine hyporesponsiveness. Using different preclinical animal models and patient samples, we identified that impaired T-cell immunity in BDL- and CCL4-induced prolonged liver injury is driven by sequential events involving microbial translocation, IFN signaling leading to myeloid cell-induced IL-10 expression, and IL-10 signaling in antigen-specific T cells. Given the absence of immune pathology after interference with IL-10R, our study highlights a potential novel target to reconstitute T-cell immunity in patients with CLD that can be explored in future clinical studies.

Comparative Analysis of Antibody Titers against the Spike Protein of SARS-CoV-2 Variants in Infected Patient Cohorts and Diverse Vaccination Regimes.

The presence of neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 correlates with protection against infection and severe COVID-19 disease courses. Understanding the dynamics of antibody development against the SARS-CoV-2 virus is important for recommendations on vaccination strategies and on control of the COVID-19 pandemic. This study investigates the dynamics and extent of α-Spike-Ab development by different vaccines manufactured by Johnson & Johnson, AstraZeneca, Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna. On day 1 after vaccination, we observed a temporal low-grade inflammatory response. α-Spike-Ab titers were reduced after six months of vaccination with mRNA vaccines and increased 14 days after booster vaccinations to a maximum that exceeded titers from mild and critical COVID-19 and Long-COVID patients. Within the group of critical COVID-19 patients, we observed a trend for lower α-Spike-Ab titers in the group of patients who survived COVID-19. This trend accompanied higher numbers of pro-B cells, fewer mature B cells and a higher frequency of T follicular helper cells. Finally, we present data demonstrating that past infection with mild COVID-19 does not lead to long-term increased Ab titers and that even the group of previously infected SARS-CoV-2 patients benefit from a vaccination six months after the infection.

Mesaconate is synthesized from itaconate and exerts immunomodulatory effects in macrophages.

Since its discovery in inflammatory macrophages, itaconate has attracted much attention due to its antimicrobial and immunomodulatory activity1-3. However, instead of investigating itaconate itself, most studies used derivatized forms of itaconate and thus the role of non-derivatized itaconate needs to be scrutinized. Mesaconate, a metabolite structurally very close to itaconate, has never been implicated in mammalian cells. Here we show that mesaconate is synthesized in inflammatory macrophages from itaconate. We find that both, non-derivatized itaconate and mesaconate dampen the glycolytic activity to a similar extent, whereas only itaconate is able to repress tricarboxylic acid cycle activity and cellular respiration. In contrast to itaconate, mesaconate does not inhibit succinate dehydrogenase. Despite their distinct impact on metabolism, both metabolites exert similar immunomodulatory effects in pro-inflammatory macrophages, specifically a reduction of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-12 secretion and an increase of CXCL10 production in a manner that is independent of NRF2 and ATF3. We show that a treatment with neither mesaconate nor itaconate impairs IL-1ß secretion and inflammasome activation. In summary, our results identify mesaconate as an immunomodulatory metabolite in macrophages, which interferes to a lesser extent with cellular metabolism than itaconate.

Renal Denervation Exacerbates LPS- and Antibody-induced Acute Kidney Injury, but Protects from Pyelonephritis in Mice.

BACKGROUND: Renal denervation (RDN) is an invasive intervention to treat drug-resistant arterial hypertension. Its therapeutic value is contentious. Here we examined the effects of RDN on inflammatory and infectious kidney disease models in mice. METHODS: Mice were unilaterally or bilaterally denervated, or sham operated, then three disease models were induced: nephrotoxic nephritis (NTN, a model for crescentic GN), pyelonephritis, and acute endotoxemic kidney injury (as a model for septic kidney injury). Analytical methods included measurement of renal glomerular filtration, proteinuria, flow cytometry of renal immune cells, immunofluorescence microscopy, and three-dimensional imaging of optically cleared kidney tissue by light-sheet fluorescence microscopy followed by algorithmic analysis. RESULTS: Unilateral RDN increased glomerular filtration in denervated kidneys, but decreased it in the contralateral kidneys. In the NTN model, more nephritogenic antibodies were deposited in glomeruli of denervated kidneys, resulting in stronger inflammation and injury in denervated compared with contralateral nondenervated kidneys. Also, intravenously injected LPS increased neutrophil influx and inflammation in the denervated kidneys, both after unilateral and bilateral RDN. When we induced pyelonephritis in bilaterally denervated mice, both kidneys contained less bacteria and neutrophils. In unilaterally denervated mice, pyelonephritis was attenuated and intrarenal neutrophil numbers were lower in the denervated kidneys. The nondenervated contralateral kidneys harbored more bacteria, even compared with sham-operated mice, and showed the strongest influx of neutrophils. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that the increased perfusion and filtration in denervated kidneys can profoundly influence concomitant inflammatory diseases. Renal deposition of circulating nephritic material is higher, and hence antibody- and endotoxin-induced kidney injury was aggravated in mice. Pyelonephritis was attenuated in denervated murine kidneys, because the higher glomerular filtration facilitated better flushing of bacteria with the urine, at the expense of contralateral, nondenervated kidneys after unilateral denervation.

Liver Fibrosis-From Mechanisms of Injury to Modulation of Disease.

The Transregional Collaborative Research Center "Organ Fibrosis: From Mechanisms of Injury to Modulation of Disease" (referred to as SFB/TRR57) was funded for 13 years (2009-2021) by the German Research Council (DFG). This consortium was hosted by the Medical Schools of the RWTH Aachen University and Bonn University in Germany. The SFB/TRR57 implemented combined basic and clinical research to achieve detailed knowledge in three selected key questions: (i) What are the relevant mechanisms and signal pathways required for initiating organ fibrosis? (ii) Which immunological mechanisms and molecules contribute to organ fibrosis? and (iii) How can organ fibrosis be modulated, e.g., by interventional strategies including imaging and pharmacological approaches? In this review we will summarize the liver-related key findings of this consortium gained within the last 12 years on these three aspects of liver fibrogenesis. We will highlight the role of cell death and cell cycle pathways as well as nutritional and iron-related mechanisms for liver fibrosis initiation. Moreover, we will define and characterize the major immune cell compartments relevant for liver fibrogenesis, and finally point to potential signaling pathways and pharmacological targets that turned out to be suitable to develop novel approaches for improved therapy and diagnosis of liver fibrosis. In summary, this review will provide a comprehensive overview about the knowledge on liver fibrogenesis and its potential therapy gained by the SFB/TRR57 consortium within the last decade. The kidney-related research results obtained by the same consortium are highlighted in an article published back-to-back in Frontiers in Medicine.

Publisher Correction: Tumor-necrosis factor impairs CD4+ T cell-mediated immunological control in chronic viral infection.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

A high-salt diet compromises antibacterial neutrophil responses through hormonal perturbation.

The Western diet is rich in salt, which poses various health risks. A high-salt diet (HSD) can stimulate immunity through the nuclear factor of activated T cells 5 (Nfat5)-signaling pathway, especially in the skin, where sodium is stored. The kidney medulla also accumulates sodium to build an osmotic gradient for water conservation. Here, we studied the effect of an HSD on the immune defense against uropathogenic E. coli-induced pyelonephritis, the most common kidney infection. Unexpectedly, pyelonephritis was aggravated in mice on an HSD by two mechanisms. First, on an HSD, sodium must be excreted; therefore, the kidney used urea instead to build the osmotic gradient. However, in contrast to sodium, urea suppressed the antibacterial functionality of neutrophils, the principal immune effectors against pyelonephritis. Second, the body excretes sodium by lowering mineralocorticoid production via suppressing aldosterone synthase. This caused an accumulation of aldosterone precursors with glucocorticoid functionality, which abolished the diurnal adrenocorticotropic hormone-driven glucocorticoid rhythm and compromised neutrophil development and antibacterial functionality systemically. Consistently, under an HSD, systemic Listeria monocytogenes infection was also aggravated in a glucocorticoid-dependent manner. Glucocorticoids directly induced Nfat5 expression, but pharmacological normalization of renal Nfat5 expression failed to restore the antibacterial defense. Last, healthy humans consuming an HSD for 1 week showed hyperglucocorticoidism and impaired antibacterial neutrophil function. In summary, an HSD suppresses intrarenal neutrophils Nfat5-independently by altering the local microenvironment and systemically by glucocorticoid-mediated immunosuppression. These findings argue against high-salt consumption during bacterial infections.

Recent Advances in Practical Methods for Liver Cell Biology: A Short Overview.

Molecular and cellular research modalities for the study of liver pathologies have been tremendously improved over the recent decades. Advanced technologies offer novel opportunities to establish cell isolation techniques with excellent purity, paving the path for 2D and 3D microscopy and high-throughput assays (e.g., bulk or single-cell RNA sequencing). The use of stem cell and organoid research will help to decipher the pathophysiology of liver diseases and the interaction between various parenchymal and non-parenchymal liver cells. Furthermore, sophisticated animal models of liver disease allow for the in vivo assessment of fibrogenesis, portal hypertension and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and for the preclinical testing of therapeutic strategies. The purpose of this review is to portray in detail novel in vitro and in vivo methods for the study of liver cell biology that had been presented at the workshop of the 8th meeting of the European Club for Liver Cell Biology (ECLCB-8) in October of 2018 in Bonn, Germany.

A dual role for hepatocyte-intrinsic canonical NF-κB signaling in virus control.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Hepatic innate immune control of viral infections has largely been attributed to Kupffer cells, the liver-resident macrophages. However, hepatocytes, the parenchymal cells of the liver, also possess potent immunological functions in addition to their known metabolic functions. Owing to their abundance in the liver and known immunological functions, we aimed to investigate the direct antiviral mechanisms employed by hepatocytes. METHODS: Using lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) as a model of liver infection, we first assessed the role of myeloid cells by depletion prior to infection. We investigated the role of hepatocyte-intrinsic innate immune signaling by infecting mice lacking canonical NF-κB signaling (IkkßΔHep) specifically in hepatocytes. In addition, mice lacking hepatocyte-specific interferon-α/ß signaling-(IfnarΔHep), or interferon-α/ß signaling in myeloid cells-(IfnarΔMyel) were infected. RESULTS: Here, we demonstrate that LCMV activates NF-κB signaling in hepatocytes. LCMV-triggered NF-κB activation in hepatocytes did not depend on Kupffer cells or TNFR1 signaling but rather on Toll-like receptor signaling. LCMV-infected IkkßΔHep livers displayed strongly elevated viral titers due to LCMV accumulation within hepatocytes, reduced interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) expression, delayed intrahepatic immune cell influx and delayed intrahepatic LCMV-specific CD8+ T cell responses. Notably, viral clearance and ISG expression were also reduced in LCMV-infected primary hepatocytes lacking IKKß, demonstrating a hepatocyte-intrinsic effect. Similar to livers of IkkßΔHep mice, enhanced hepatocytic LCMV accumulation was observed in livers of IfnarΔHep mice, whereas IfnarΔMyel mice were able to control LCMV infection. Hepatocytic NF-κB signaling was also required for efficient ISG induction in HDV-infected dHepaRG cells and interferon-α/ß-mediated inhibition of HBV replication in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these data show that hepatocyte-intrinsic NF-κB is a vital amplifier of interferon-α/ß signaling, which is pivotal for strong early ISG responses, immune cell infiltration and hepatic viral clearance. LAY SUMMARY: Innate immune cells have been ascribed a primary role in controlling viral clearance upon hepatic infections. We identified a novel dual role for NF-κB signaling in infected hepatocytes which was crucial for maximizing interferon responses and initiating adaptive immunity, thereby efficiently controlling hepatic virus replication.

Influence of some methylated hepatocarcinogenesis-related genes on the response to antiviral therapy and development of fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C patients.

Epigenetics involved in multiple normal cellular processes. Previous research have revealed the role of hepatitis C virus infection in accelerating methylation process and affecting response to treatment in chronic hepatitis patients. This work aimed to elucidate the role of promoter methylation (PM) in response to antiviral therapy, and its contribution to the development of fibrosis through hepatocarcinogenesis-related genes. A total of 159 chronic hepatitis Egyptian patients versus 100 healthy control group were included. The methylation profile of a panel 9 genes (SFRP1, p14, p73, APC, DAPK, RASSF1A, LINE1, O6MGMT, and p16) was detected in patients' plasma using methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction (MSP). Clinical and laboratory findings were gathered for patients with combined pegylated interferon and ribavirin antiviral therapy. Regarding the patients' response to antiviral therapy, the percentage of non-responders for APC, O6MGMT, RASSF1A, SFRP1, and p16 methylated genes were significantly higher versus responders (P<0.05). Of the 159 included patients, the most frequent methylated genes were SFRP1 (102/159), followed by p16 (100/159), RASSF1A (98/159), then LINE1 (81/159), P73 (81/159), APC (78/159), DAPK (66/159), O6MGMT (66/159), and p14 (54/159). A total of 67/98 (68.4%) cases of RASSF1A methylated gene (P=0.0.024), and 62/100 (62%) cases of P16 methylated gene (P=0.03) were associated with mild-degree fibrosis. To recapitulate, the PM of SFRP1, APC, RASSF1A, O6MGMT, and p16 genes increases in chronic hepatitis C patients, and can affect patients' response to antiviral therapy. The RASSF1A and P16 genes might have a role in the distinction between mild and marked fibrosis.

HIF1A and NFAT5 coordinate Na+-boosted antibacterial defense via enhanced autophagy and autolysosomal targeting.

Infection and inflammation are able to induce diet-independent Na+-accumulation without commensurate water retention in afflicted tissues, which favors the pro-inflammatory activation of mouse macrophages and augments their antibacterial and antiparasitic activity. While Na+-boosted host defense against the protozoan parasite Leishmania major is mediated by increased expression of the leishmanicidal NOS2 (nitric oxide synthase 2, inducible), the molecular mechanisms underpinning this enhanced antibacterial defense of mouse macrophages with high Na+ (HS) exposure are unknown. Here, we provide evidence that HS-increased antibacterial activity against E. coli was neither dependent on NOS2 nor on the phagocyte oxidase. In contrast, HS-augmented antibacterial defense hinged on HIF1A (hypoxia inducible factor 1, alpha subunit)-dependent increased autophagy, and NFAT5 (nuclear factor of activated T cells 5)-dependent targeting of intracellular E. coli to acidic autolysosomal compartments. Overall, these findings suggest that the autolysosomal compartment is a novel target of Na+-modulated cell autonomous innate immunity. Abbreviations: ACT: actins; AKT: AKT serine/threonine kinase 1; ATG2A: autophagy related 2A; ATG4C: autophagy related 4C, cysteine peptidase; ATG7: autophagy related 7; ATG12: autophagy related 12; BECN1: beclin 1; BMDM: bone marrow-derived macrophages; BNIP3: BCL2/adenovirus E1B interacting protein 3; CFU: colony forming units; CM-H2DCFDA: 5-(and-6)-chloromethyl-2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate, acetyl ester; CTSB: cathepsin B; CYBB: cytochrome b-245 beta chain; DAPI: 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole; DMOG: dimethyloxallyl glycine; DPI: diphenyleneiodonium chloride; E. coli: Escherichia coli; FDR: false discovery rate; GFP: green fluorescent protein; GSEA: gene set enrichment analysis; GO: gene ontology; HIF1A: hypoxia inducible factor 1, alpha subunit; HUGO: human genome organization; HS: high salt (+ 40 mM of NaCl to standard cell culture conditions); HSP90: heat shock 90 kDa proteins; LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; Lyz2/LysM: lysozyme 2; NFAT5/TonEBP: nuclear factor of activated T cells 5; MΦ: macrophages; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MFI: mean fluorescence intensity; MIC: minimum inhibitory concentration; MOI: multiplicity of infection; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; NaCl: sodium chloride; NES: normalized enrichment score; n.s.: not significant; NO: nitric oxide; NOS2/iNOS: nitric oxide synthase 2, inducible; NS: normal salt; PCR: polymerase chain reaction; PGK1: phosphoglycerate kinase 1; PHOX: phagocyte oxidase; RFP: red fluorescent protein; RNA: ribonucleic acid; ROS: reactive oxygen species; sCFP3A: super cyan fluorescent protein 3A; SBFI: sodium-binding benzofuran isophthalate; SLC2A1/GLUT1: solute carrier family 2 (facilitated glucose transporter), member 1; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; ULK1: unc-51 like kinase 1; v-ATPase: vacuolar-type H+-ATPase; WT: wild type.

Enzymatic Activity of HPGD in Treg Cells Suppresses Tconv Cells to Maintain Adipose Tissue Homeostasis and Prevent Metabolic Dysfunction.

Regulatory T cells (Treg cells) are important for preventing autoimmunity and maintaining tissue homeostasis, but whether Treg cells can adopt tissue- or immune-context-specific suppressive mechanisms is unclear. Here, we found that the enzyme hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (HPGD), which catabolizes prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) into the metabolite 15-keto PGE2, was highly expressed in Treg cells, particularly those in visceral adipose tissue (VAT). Nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ)-induced HPGD expression in VAT Treg cells, and consequential Treg-cell-mediated generation of 15-keto PGE2 suppressed conventional T cell activation and proliferation. Conditional deletion of Hpgd in mouse Treg cells resulted in the accumulation of functionally impaired Treg cells specifically in VAT, causing local inflammation and systemic insulin resistance. Consistent with this mechanism, humans with type 2 diabetes showed decreased HPGD expression in Treg cells. These data indicate that HPGD-mediated suppression is a tissue- and context-dependent suppressive mechanism used by Treg cells to maintain adipose tissue homeostasis.