Correction: Boia-Ferreira et al. TCTP from Loxosceles Intermedia (Brown Spider) Venom Contributes to the Allergic and Inflammatory Response of Cutaneous Loxoscelism. Cells 2019, 8, 1489.

In the original publication [...].

Antimicrobial Cu-Doped TiO2 Coatings on the ß Ti-30Nb-5Mo Alloy by Micro-Arc Oxidation.

Among the different surface modification techniques, micro-arc oxidation (MAO) is explored for its ability to enhance the surface properties of Ti alloys by creating a controlled and durable oxide layer. The incorporation of Cu ions during the MAO process introduces additional functionalities to the surface, offering improved corrosion resistance and antimicrobial activity. In this study, the ß-metastable Ti-30Nb-5Mo alloy was oxidated through the MAO method to create a Cu-doped TiO2 coating. The quantity of Cu ions in the electrolyte was changed (1.5, 2.5, and 3.5 mMol) to develop coatings with different Cu concentrations. X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning electron and atomic force microscopies, contact angle, and Vickers microhardness techniques were applied to characterize the deposited coatings. Cu incorporation increased the antimicrobial activity of the coatings, inhibiting the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria strains, and Candida albicans fungus by approximately 44%, 37%, 19%, and 41%, respectively. Meanwhile, the presence of Cu did not inhibit the growth of Escherichia coli. The hardness of all the deposited coatings was between 4 and 5 GPa. All the coatings were non-cytotoxic for adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AMSC), promoting approximately 90% of cell growth and not affecting the AMSC differentiation into the osteogenic lineage.

Involvement of von Willebrand factor and botrocetin in the thrombocytopenia induced by Bothrops jararaca snake venom.

Patients bitten by snakes consistently manifest a bleeding tendency, in which thrombocytopenia, consumption coagulopathy, mucous bleeding, and, more rarely, thrombotic microangiopathy, are observed. Von Willebrand factor (VWF) is required for primary hemostasis, and some venom proteins, such as botrocetin (a C-type lectin-like protein) and snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMP), disturb the normal interaction between platelets and VWF, possibly contributing to snakebite-induced bleedings. To understand the relationship among plasma VWF, platelets, botrocetin and SVMP from Bothrops jararaca snake venom (BjV) in the development of thrombocytopenia, we used (a) Wistar rats injected s.c. with BjV preincubated with anti-botrocetin antibodies (ABA) and/or Na2-EDTA (a SVMP inhibitor), and (b) VWF knockout mice (Vwf-/-) injected with BjV. Under all conditions, BjV induced a rapid and intense thrombocytopenia. In rats, BjV alone reduced the levels of VWF:Ag, VWF:CB, high molecular weight multimers of VWF, ADAMTS13 activity, and factor VIII. Moreover, VWF:Ag levels in rats that received BjV preincubated with Na2-EDTA and/or ABA tended to recover faster. In mice, BjV caused thrombocytopenia in both Vwf-/- and C57BL/6 (background control) strains, and VWF:Ag levels tended to decrease in C57BL/6, demonstrating that thrombocytopenia was independent of the presence of plasma VWF. These findings showed that botrocetin present in BjV failed to affect the extent or the time course of thrombocytopenia induced by envenomation, but it contributed to decrease the levels and function of plasma VWF. Thus, VWF alterations during B. jararaca envenomation are an ancillary event, and not the main mechanism leading to decreased platelet counts.

Involvement of von Willebrand factor and botrocetin in the thrombocytopenia induced by Bothrops jararaca snake venom

Patients bitten by snakes consistently manifest a bleeding tendency, in which thrombocytopenia, consumption coagulopathy, mucous bleeding, and, more rarely, thrombotic microangiopathy, are observed. Von Willebrand factor (VWF) is required for primary hemostasis, and some venom proteins, such as botrocetin (a C-type lectin-like protein) and snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMP), disturb the normal interaction between platelets and VWF, possibly contributing to snakebite-induced bleedings. To understand the relationship among plasma VWF, platelets, botrocetin and SVMP from Bothrops jararaca snake venom (BjV) in the development of thrombocytopenia, we used (a) Wistar rats injected s.c. with BjV preincubated with anti-botrocetin antibodies (ABA) and/or Na2-EDTA (a SVMP inhibitor), and (b) VWF knockout mice (Vwf-/-) injected with BjV. Under all conditions, BjV induced a rapid and intense thrombocytopenia. In rats, BjV alone reduced the levels of VWF:Ag, VWF:CB, high molecular weight multimers of VWF, ADAMTS13 activity, and factor VIII. Moreover, VWF:Ag levels in rats that received BjV preincubated with Na2-EDTA and/or ABA tended to recover faster. In mice, BjV caused thrombocytopenia in both Vwf-/- and C57BL/6 (background control) strains, and VWF:Ag levels tended to decrease in C57BL/6, demonstrating that thrombocytopenia was independent of the presence of plasma VWF. These findings showed that botrocetin present in BjV failed to affect the extent or the time course of thrombocytopenia induced by envenomation, but it contributed to decrease the levels and function of plasma VWF. Thus, VWF alterations during B. jararaca envenomation are an ancillary event, and not the main mechanism leading to decreased platelet counts.

TCTP from Loxosceles Intermedia (Brown Spider) Venom Contributes to the Allergic and Inflammatory Response of Cutaneous Loxoscelism.

LiTCTP is a toxin from the Translationally Controlled Tumor Protein (TCTP) family identified in Loxosceles brown spider venoms. These proteins are known as histamine-releasing factors (HRF). TCTPs participate in allergic and anaphylactic reactions, which suggest their potential role as therapeutic targets. The histaminergic effect of TCTP is related to its pro-inflammatory functions. An initial characterization of LiTCTP in animal models showed that this toxin can increase the microvascular permeability of skin vessels and induce paw edema in a dose-dependent manner. We evaluated the role of LiTCTP in vitro and in vivo in the inflammatory and allergic aspects that undergo the biological responses observed in Loxoscelism, the clinical condition after an accident with Loxosceles spiders. Our results showed LiTCTP recombinant toxin (LiRecTCTP) as an essential synergistic factor for the dermonecrotic toxin actions (LiRecDT1, known as the main toxin in the pathophysiology of Loxoscelism), revealing its contribution to the exacerbated inflammatory response clinically observed in envenomated patients.

Design and Production of a Recombinant Hybrid Toxin to Raise Protective Antibodies Against Loxosceles Spider Venom.

Human accidents with spiders of the genus Loxosceles are an important health problem affecting thousands of people worldwide. Patients evolve to severe local injuries and, in many cases, to systemic disturbances as acute renal failure, in which cases antivenoms are considered to be the most effective treatment. However, for antivenom production, the extraction of the venom used in the immunization process is laborious and the yield is very low. Thus, many groups have been exploring the use of recombinant Loxosceles toxins, particularly phospholipases D (PLDs), to produce the antivenom. Nonetheless, some important venom activities are not neutralized by anti-PLD antibodies. Astacin-like metalloproteases (ALMPs) are the second most expressed toxin acting on the extracellular matrix, indicating the importance of its inclusion in the antigen's formulation to provide a better antivenom. Here we show the construction of a hybrid recombinant immunogen, called LgRec1ALP1, composed of hydrophilic regions of the PLD and the ALMP toxins from Loxosceles gaucho. Although the LgRec1ALP1 was expressed as inclusion bodies, it resulted in good yields and it was effective to produce neutralizing antibodies in mice. The antiserum neutralized fibrinogenolytic, platelet aggregation and dermonecrotic activities elicited by L. gaucho, L. laeta, and L. intermedia venoms, indicating that the hybrid recombinant antigen may be a valuable source for the production of protective antibodies against Loxosceles ssp. venoms. In addition, the hybrid recombinant toxin approach may enrich and expand the alternative antigens for antisera production for other venoms.

TCTP from loxosceles intermedia (Brown Spider) venom contributes to the allergic and inflammatory response of cutaneous loxoscelism

LiTCTP is a toxin from the Translationally Controlled Tumor Protein (TCTP) family identified in Loxosceles brown spider venoms. These proteins are known as histamine-releasing factors (HRF). TCTPs participate in allergic and anaphylactic reactions, which suggest their potential role as therapeutic targets. The histaminergic effect of TCTP is related to its pro-inflammatory functions. An initial characterization of LiTCTP in animal models showed that this toxin can increase the microvascular permeability of skin vessels and induce paw edema in a dose-dependent manner. We evaluated the role of LiTCTP in vitro and in vivo in the inflammatory and allergic aspects that undergo the biological responses observed in Loxoscelism, the clinical condition after an accident with Loxosceles spiders. Our results showed LiTCTP recombinant toxin (LiRecTCTP) as an essential synergistic factor for the dermonecrotic toxin actions (LiRecDT1, known as the main toxin in the pathophysiology of Loxoscelism), revealing its contribution to the exacerbated inflammatory response clinically observed in envenomated patients.

When spider and snake get along: fusion of a snake disintegrin with a spider phospholipase D to explore their synergistic effects on a tumor cell

Venoms of spiders and snakes contain toxins extremely active and, thus, provide a natural source for the development of new biotechnological tools. Among the diversity of toxins present in the venom of spiders from genus Loxosceles, the phospholipases D (PLDs) show high hydrolytic activity upon lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) and sphingomyelin (SM), generating bioactive phospholipids such as cyclic phosphatidic acid (cPA). Since this mediator has been shown to play a major role in complex signaling pathways, including inhibition of tumor cells, the PLDs may hold the key to learn how toxins could be used for therapeutic purposes. However, the strong platelet aggregation of PLDs and their lack of selectivity impose a major limitation. On the other hand, disintegrins present in the venoms of Viperidae snakes are a potent inhibitor of platelet aggregation and possess high affinity and specificity to molecules called integrins that are highly expressed in some tumor cells, such as murine melanoma B16F10. Therefore, disintegrins might be suitable molecules to carry the PLDs to the malignant cells, so both toxins may work synergistically to eliminate these cells. Thus, in this work, a recombinant PLD from Loxosceles gaucho spider was recombinantly fused to a disintegrin from Echis carinatus snake to form a hybrid toxin called Rechistatin. This recombinant toxin was successfully expressed in bacteria, showed binding activity in B16F10 murine melanoma cells and exerted a synergistic cytotoxicity effect on these cells. Therefore, the approach presented in this work may represent a new strategy to explore new potential applications for spider PLDs.

Design and production of a recombinant hybrid toxin to raise protective antibodies against Loxosceles spider venom

Human accidents with spiders of the genus Loxosceles are an important health problem affecting thousands of people worldwide. Patients evolve to severe local injuries and, in many cases, to systemic disturbances as acute renal failure, in which cases antivenoms are considered to be the most effective treatment. However, for antivenom production, the extraction of the venom used in the immunization process is laborious and the yield is very low. Thus, many groups have been exploring the use of recombinant Loxosceles toxins, particularly phospholipases D (PLDs), to produce the antivenom. Nonetheless, some important venom activities are not neutralized by anti-PLD antibodies. Astacin-like metalloproteases (ALMPs) are the second most expressed toxin acting on the extracellular matrix, indicating the importance of its inclusion in the antigen’s formulation to provide a better antivenom. Here we show the construction of a hybrid recombinant immunogen, called LgRec1ALP1, composed of hydrophilic regions of the PLD and the ALMP toxins from Loxosceles gaucho. Although the LgRec1ALP1 was expressed as inclusion bodies, it resulted in good yields and it was effective to produce neutralizing antibodies in mice. The antiserum neutralized fibrinogenolytic, platelet aggregation and dermonecrotic activities elicited by L. gaucho, L. laeta, and L. intermedia venoms, indicating that the hybrid recombinant antigen may be a valuable source for the production of protective antibodies against Loxosceles ssp. venoms. In addition, the hybrid recombinant toxin approach may enrich and expand the alternative antigens for antisera production for other venoms.

Influence of different processing techniques on the toxicity and biochemical characteristics of Tityus serrulatus scorpion venom.

Studies of scorpion venoms have used different venom drying methods: lyophilization, desiccation, lyophilization after mixing with 0.9% saline or purified water and centrifugation. The aim of this study was to see if these different approaches cause some alteration in the composition of the venom or interfere with its biological effects. Mice were injected (i.p.) with T. serrulatus scorpion venom in the liquid form (G-liq) or dried by different methods (lyophilized - G-lyo; centrifuged and the supernatant lyophilized - G-cen; desiccated - G-des), and observed regarding the occurrence of the symptoms respiratory difficulty, convulsion and death. The occurrence of seizures, although occurring in all groups and with the various doses used, did not prove to be effective to determine differences between the different handling techniques. Respiratory distress appeared to be useful in analyzing differences between groups, where this effect was less pronounced in the G-liq and G-des groups. In general, death occurred in a certain proportion with increasing dose for all groups. G-liq and G-des seemed to be more "active" at lower doses and G-cen and G-lyo at higher doses. The electrophoretic and chromatographic profile demonstrated main differences between G-liq and the dried groups. In the electrophoretic profile, the liquid venom showed bands of proteins of higher concentration and greater number of major bands and the three dried venom had the lowest number of protein bands. The HPLC profile and densitometry of the electrophoretic profiles showed some differences that may be associated with different protein conformation/aggregation. Our data indicated that lyophilization is the most suitable method for processing T. serrulatus scorpion venom after extraction.

Influence of different processing techniques on the toxicity and biochemical characteristics of Tityus serrulatus scorpion venom

Studies of scorpion venoms have used different venom drying methods: lyophilization, desiccation, lyophilization after mixing with 0.9% saline or purified water and centrifugation. The aim of this study was to see if these different approaches cause some alteration in the composition of the venom or interfere with its biological effects. Mice were injected (i.p.) with T. serrulatus scorpion venom in the liquid form (G-liq) or dried by different methods (lyophilized – G-lyo; centrifuged and the supernatant lyophilized – G-cen; desiccated – G-des), and observed regarding the occurrence of the symptoms respiratory difficulty, convulsion and death. The occurrence of seizures, although occurring in all groups and with the various doses used, did not prove to be effective to determine differences between the different handling techniques. Respiratory distress appeared to be useful in analyzing differences between groups, where this effect was less pronounced in the G-liq and G-des groups. In general, death occurred in a certain proportion with increasing dose for all groups. G-liq and G-des seemed to be more "active" at lower doses and G-cen and G-lyo at higher doses. The electrophoretic and chromatographic profile demonstrated main differences between G-liq and the dried groups. In the electrophoretic profile, the liquid venom showed bands of proteins of higher concentration and greater number of major bands and the three dried venom had the lowest number of protein bands. The HPLC profile and densitometry of the electrophoretic profiles showed some differences that may be associated with different protein conformation/aggregation. Our data indicated that lyophilization is the most suitable method for processing T. serrulatus scorpion venom after extraction.

Morphological and biochemical characterization of the cutaneous poison glands in toads (Rhinella marina group) from different environments

Background Amphibian defence against predators and microorganisms is directly related to cutaneous glands that produce a huge number of different toxins. These glands are distributed throughout the body but can form accumulations in specific regions. When grouped in low numbers, poison glands form structures similar to warts, quite common in the dorsal skin of bufonids (toads). When accumulated in large numbers, the glands constitute protuberant structures known as macroglands, among which the parotoids are the most common ones. This work aimed at the morphological and biochemical characterization of the poison glands composing different glandular accumulations in four species of toads belonging to group Rhinella marina (R. icterica, R. marina, R. schneideri and R. jimi). These species constitute a good model since they possess other glandular accumulations together with the dorsal warts and the parotoids and inhabit environments with different degrees of water availability. Results We have observed that the toads skin has three types of poison glands that can be differentiated from each other through the morphology and the chemical content of their secretion product. The distribution of these different glands throughout the body is peculiar to each toad species, except for the parotoids and the other macroglands, which are composed of an exclusive gland type that is usually different from that composing the dorsal warts. Each type of poison gland presents histochemical and biochemical peculiarities, mainly regarding protein components. Conclusions The distribution, morphology and chemical composition of the different types of poison glands, indicate that they may have different defensive functions in each toad species.

The potential of Loxosceles gaucho spider venom to regulate Pseudomonas aeruginosa mechanisms of virulence

Loxosceles venom is a potential source of bioactive molecules which may be transformed into antimicrobial products against multi-resistant bacteria. Here, it was investigated whether Loxosceles gaucho spider had any influence on the proliferation, enzyme release and biofilm formation of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain resistant to two different classes of antibiotic. The results demonstrated that L. gaucho whole venom has no influence on P. aeruginosa proliferation. However, it increases P. aeruginosa production of gelatinase, caseinase and biofilm formation. The same effects were noted when P. aeruginosa was exposed to a L. gaucho venom molecular fraction with mass lower than 1 kDa. Separation of this molecular fraction into different subsets by RP-HPLC demonstrated that, among the molecules with the ability to increase the production of enzymes and biofilm formation, there are some with antimicrobial activities whose effects are not observed in the whole venom. In summary, the results obtained herein indicate that L. gaucho venom has a variety of low molecular mass bioactive components that influence the mechanisms of virulence of P. aeruginosa in different ways.

Potamotrygon motoro stingray venom induces both neurogenic and inflammatory pain behavior in rodents

Freshwater stingray accidents cause an immediate, intense, and unrelieved pain which is followed by edema, erythema and necrosis formation. Treatment for stingray envenomation is based on administration of analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs. Concerning pain control, it is prescribed to immerse punctured limb on hot water to alleviate pain. There are no studies demonstrating specific targets on which stingray venom acts to promote pain. Therefore, the aim of this work was to investigate some mechanisms of Potamotrygon motoro venom (PmV) that contribute to nociception induction. Evaluating spontaneous pain behavior in mice injected i.pl. with PmV, it was seen that PmV induced both neurogenic and inflammatory pain. PmV also induced hyperalgesia in both mice and rats, evaluated through electronic von Frey and rat paw pressure test, respectively. Partial inhibition of hyperalgesia was observed in mice treated with cromolyn or promethazine, which indicated that mast cell and histamine via H1 receptor participate in the inflammatory pain. To search for some targets involved in PmVinduced hyperalgesia, the participation of TRPV1, calcium channels, neurokinins, CGRP, and norepinephrine, was evaluated in rats. It was seen that PmV-induced hyperalgesia occurs with the participation of neurokinins, mainly via NK1 receptor, CGRP, and calcium influx, through both P/Q and L-type voltage-dependent calcium channels, besides TRPV1 activation. The data presented herein indicate that PmV causes hyperalgesia in rodents which is dependent on the participation of several neuroinflammatory mediators.

Recombinant Phospholipase D from Loxosceles gaucho Binds to Platelets and Promotes Phosphatidylserine Exposure.

Spider envenomation, from the genus Loxosceles, is frequently reported as a cause of necrotic lesions in humans around the world. Among the many components found in the venom of Loxosceles genus, phospholipases D (PLDs) are the most investigated, since they can cause a massive inflammatory response, dermonecrosis, hemolysis and platelet aggregation, among other effects. Even though the PLDs induce strong platelet aggregation, there are no studies showing how the PLDs interact with platelets to promote this effect. Since many agonists must interact with specific receptors on the platelet membrane to induce aggregation, it is reasonable to expect that the PLDs may, in some way, also interact with platelets, to induce this activity. Therefore, to address this possibility, in this work, a recombinant PLD, called LgRec1, from L. gaucho was fused to enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) and used as a probe to detect the interaction of LgRec1 to platelets, by fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) and confocal microscopy. The preservation of biological activities of this chimera toxin was also analyzed. As a first, the results show that LgRec1 does not require plasma components to bind to platelets, although these components are necessary to LgRec1 to induce platelet aggregation. Also, the attachment of LgRec1 to human platelets' cell membranes suggests that the exposure of phosphatidylserine (PS) may act as a scaffold for coagulation factors. Therefore, the results add new information about the binding of Loxosceles PLDs to platelets, which may help unravel how these toxins promote platelet aggregation.

Toxin Fused with SUMO Tag: A New Expression Vector Strategy to Obtain Recombinant Venom Toxins with Easy Tag Removal inside the Bacteria.

Many animal toxins may target the same molecules that need to be controlled in certain pathologies; therefore, some toxins have led to the formulation of drugs that are presently used, and many other drugs are still under development. Nevertheless, collecting sufficient toxins from the original source might be a limiting factor in studying their biological activities. Thus, molecular biology techniques have been applied in order to obtain large amounts of recombinant toxins into Escherichia coli. However, most animal toxins are difficult to express in this system, which results in insoluble, misfolded, or unstable proteins. To solve these issues, toxins have been fused with tags that may improve protein expression, solubility, and stability. Among these tags, the SUMO (small ubiquitin-related modifier) has been shown to be very efficient and can be removed by the Ulp1 protease. However, removing SUMO is a labor- and time-consuming process. To enhance this system, here we show the construction of a bicistronic vector that allows the expression of any protein fused to both the SUMO and Ulp1 protease. In this way, after expression, Ulp1 is able to cleave SUMO and leave the protein interest-free and ready for purification. This strategy was validated through the expression of a new phospholipase D from the spider Loxosceles gaucho and a disintegrin from the Bothrops insularis snake. Both recombinant toxins showed good yield and preserved biological activities, indicating that the bicistronic vector may be a viable method to produce proteins that are difficult to express.

Some pharmacological effects of Tityus obscurus venom in rats and mice.

There are a great number of studies about Brazilian scorpions. However, little is known about the venom of scorpions of northern Brazil, mainly about Tityus obscurus, which is responsible for the most number of accidents in the Amazon. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate some pharmacological effects of T. obscurus venom in rats and mice. In rats, the venom (10 mg/kg i.p.) caused hemorrhagic patches in the lung parenchyma but did not lead to pulmonary edema. There was a decrease in general activity, observed in the activity box after venom injection. The venom did not induce changes in the occurrence and intensity of experimentally induced convulsions, nor did it cause hippocampal neuronal loss. In mice, the LD50 obtained was 3.13 mg/kg (i.p.). Different doses of the venom (0.2; 1; 5; 10; 15 µg/30 µL per hind paw) induced edematogenic and moderate nociceptive activity in mice. The Tiyus serrulatus venom used as comparison caused more intense symptomatology in mice. Comparing to the venom of other Tityus scorpions of medical importance, that have convulsant and intense nociceptive effects and cause lung edema, as described in the literature, we can conclude that the venom of T. obscurus probably has different characteristics.

Predatory behavior of three centipede species of the order Scolopendromorpha (Arthropoda: Myriapoda: Chilopoda)

Studies related to centipede feeding and predatory behavior are rare in the literature, and are limited to observations made during fieldwork. Furthermore, they lack descriptions of prey capture. We conducted a laboratory experiment using South American specimens of Scolopendra viridicornis Newport, 1844 (n = 5), Otostigmus tibialis Brõlemann, 1902 (n = 5), and Cryptops iheringi Brõlemann, 1902 (n = 5), as well as 13 different kinds of prey, to map and describe their predatory behavior. The analysis of video images (65 hours of recordings) resulted in 15 behavioral categories that describe foraging, prey capture, feeding, and cleaning habits. Almost all observations (95%) concluded with the centipede killing the prey. Although we witnessed that a stimulus triggered the movement of the centipede toward the prey in all observation events (suggesting a sit-and-wait strategy), our experiments also showed that these arthropods actively forage to seek food. Field observations during the experiment allowed us to document that scolopendromorphs feed on plants when animal prey items are not available. Moreover, we observed that the size and aggressiveness of the prey determined the centipede capture process. Our results revealed that two behavioral categories were performed only by S. viridicornis , and thus might be genus or species-specific. These are: raising the first third of the body while the rest of the body remains adjacent to the substrate; and restraining the prey along the ventral region of the first third of the body with the aid of locomotory legs. We also observed some peculiar behaviors performed only by O. tibialis . Our results confirm that S. viridicornis , O. tibialis and C. iheringi hold prey between their ultimate pair of legs.

Predatory behavior of three centipede species of the order Scolopendromorpha (Arthropoda: Myriapoda: Chilopoda)

Studies related to centipede feeding and predatory behavior are rare in the literature, and are limited to observations made during fieldwork. Furthermore, they lack descriptions of prey capture. We conducted a laboratory experiment using South American specimens of Scolopendra viridicornis Newport, 1844 (n = 5), Otostigmus tibialis Brõlemann, 1902 (n = 5), and Cryptops iheringi Brõlemann, 1902 (n = 5), as well as 13 different kinds of prey, to map and describe their predatory behavior. The analysis of video images (65 hours of recordings) resulted in 15 behavioral categories that describe foraging, prey capture, feeding, and cleaning habits. Almost all observations (95%) concluded with the centipede killing the prey. Although we witnessed that a stimulus triggered the movement of the centipede toward the prey in all observation events (suggesting a sit-and-wait strategy), our experiments also showed that these arthropods actively forage to seek food. Field observations during the experiment allowed us to document that scolopendromorphs feed on plants when animal prey items are not available. Moreover, we observed that the size and aggressiveness of the prey determined the centipede capture process. Our results revealed that two behavioral categories were performed only by S. viridicornis , and thus might be genus or species-specific. These are: raising the first third of the body while the rest of the body remains adjacent to the substrate; and restraining the prey along the ventral region of the first third of the body with the aid of locomotory legs. We also observed some peculiar behaviors performed only by O. tibialis . Our results confirm that S. viridicornis , O. tibialis and C. iheringi hold prey between their ultimate pair of legs.(AU)