Fetal Cardiology Bioethics: An Innovative New Curriculum for Cardiology Trainees.

Decision-making in fetal cardiology is fraught with ethical issues yet education in bioethics for trainees is limited or nonexistent. In this innovation report, we describe the development of a fetal cardiology bioethics curriculum designed to address this gap. The curriculum was developed to supplement the core curriculum for cardiology fellows and fetal cardiology subspecialty trainees. The series combines didactic and interactive teaching modalities and contains 5 key components: (1) introduction to bioethics and its role in fetal cardiology, (2) counseling and pathways for compassionate terminal care, (3) case vignette-based ethical analysis and discussion cases, (4) fetal counseling considerations for shared decision-making and recommendations, (5) facilitated communications role play. The curriculum was refined using session evaluations from end users. This report describes the innovative curriculum as a starting point for further incorporation and study of bioethical education in pediatric cardiology and fetal training programs.

The Development of a Simulated Umbilical Line Insertion Model and Curriculum in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit.

Background Insertion of an umbilical venous catheter (UVC) is a required skill for pediatric residents to learn and perform effectively. However, there is known variability in the ability of residents to perform this essential neonatal skill. Objective The objective of our study was to create a competency-based curriculum for umbilical vein catheter insertion using a human umbilical tissue simulated model, and to assess the feasibility of the curriculum on resident learners during their neonatology rotations. Methods We evaluated the curriculum by assessment of resident learning, reactions, and behaviours. Performance was assessed using the Ottawa Surgical Competency Operating Room Evaluation (O-SCORE). Results A total of 14 residents were included for analysis. The majority were 'senior' residents (postgraduate year (PGY)-3 and PGY-4 n = 10; PGY-1 n =4), and they reported a wide range of previous experience with UVC insertion prior to this curriculum implementation. The residents' reaction to the curriculum was overwhelmingly positive. All residents maintained or improved in their knowledge assessment. O-SCORE results showed improvement in UVC insertion before and after curriculum completion for both junior (2.5 +/- 0.71 to 4.5 +/- 0.41) and senior (3.55 +/- 0.42 to 4.95 +/- 0.15, p < 0.001) residents. The mean improvement in O-SCORE was greater for junior residents than senior residents. Conclusion The results of this study demonstrate the feasibility and emerging impact of a competency-based curriculum using simulation for procedural skills.

Gaps in Developmental Pediatrics training: A Canadian resident physician perspective.

This article was migrated. The article was marked as recommended. Introduction: Postgraduate medical training worldwide has recently experienced a transition to Competency-Based Medical Education (CBME). This provides a timely opportunity to critically evaluate the postgraduate medical curriculum, particularly from a trainee perspective. Studies reveal that Canadian residents and recent graduates in pediatrics and family medicine are uncomfortable with their proficiency in child development. However, little is known about residents' perceptions of their training, nor where specific needs lie. We therefore sought to identify gaps in developmental pediatrics training, with the goal of informing the development of a new CBME curriculum. Methods: An online cross sectional needs assessment survey was administered to current pediatrics and family medicine residents at our institution. A total of 63 residents participated, 43 pediatrics and 20 family medicine. Results: Four key themes emerged from analysis of survey results: 1. Residents agree that developmental pediatrics is relevant to future practice and competency; 2. Residents feel they lack competency in the assessment and management of patients with developmental issues; 3. Residents' feelings of insufficient and inadequate training increase over time; 4. Residents recommend changes to developmental pediatrics training. Conclusion: As we prepare to transition to CBME, curriculum should be purposefully developed to meet resident identified need and reflect appropriate competencies required for clinical practice.

Subjective taste to polyethylene glycol is associated with efficacy of right colon preparation.

AIM: A prospective observational trial with preparations using polyethylene glycol (PEG) to compare patient compliance and adverse events according to individual subjective taste. METHODS: A total of 299 outpatients (mean ± standard deviation [SD] 56.5 ± 13.8 years, 172 males) were recruited for our study. We assessed the efficacy of bowel preparation, subjective taste to their regimens, compliance and adverse events during the preparation. RESULTS: We achieved adequate preparation in 267 (89.3%). A total of 124 patients (41.5%) had 'unacceptable taste' to their regimens. The patients with acceptable taste had better compliance than the patients with unacceptable taste (p = .009). The patients with unacceptable taste had more frequent adverse events such as nausea, vomiting and abdominal bloating than the patients with acceptable taste (all p < .001, Table 2). Patients with unacceptable taste (16.1%) had more frequent inadequate preparation in overall colon than patients with acceptable taste (6.9%, p = .011). There was a significant difference in the efficacy of preparation of right colon between the two groups (p = .004). CONCLUSION: Subjective taste to PEG is associated with efficacy of right colon preparation. In addition, subjective taste to PEG is associated with compliance and adverse events.

Enhancement of Optic Nerve in Leukemic Patients: Leukemic Infiltration of Optic Nerve versus Optic Neuritis

PURPOSE: To identify magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings of leukemic infiltration of optic nerve and optic neuritis in leukemic patients with emphasis of clinical findings as reference standard to differentiate them. MATERIALS AND METHODS: MRI and clinical findings of 7 patients diagnosed as leukemic infiltration of optic nerve (n = 5) and optic neuritis (n = 2) in our institution between July 2006 and August 2015were reviewed retrospectively. In particular, MR imaging findings involved perineural enhancement and thickening of optic nerve and its degree, signal intensity, laterality (unilateral/bilateral), intraconal fat infiltration and its degree, and associated central nervous system abnormalities. RESULTS: Of 5 cases of leukemic infiltration of optic nerve, 4 cases showed positive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) study for leukemia relapse and 1 case was positive on bone marrow (BM) biopsy only. Moreover, of 5 leukemic infiltration of optic nerve, 2 cases showed the most specific MR findings for leukemic central nervous system involvement including 1 prominent leptomeningeal enhancement and 1 chloroma. However, other MR imaging findings of the patients with leukemic infiltration or optic neuritis such as thickening and perineural enhancement of optic nerves are overlapped. CONCLUSION: Enhancement and thickening of optic nerve were overlapped MR findings in leukemic infiltration of optic nerve and optic neuritis. Our findings suggest that enhancing optic nerve thickening with associated central nervous system MR abnormality favors the diagnosis of leukemic infiltration of optic nerve, especially in patients with history of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. However, CSF and BM study were required for differentiation between leukemic infiltration of optic nerve and optic neuritis.

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in patients with previous acute coronary syndrome.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is considered a high-risk procedure in patients with previous acute coronary syndrome (ACS); however, clinical studies are rare in the literature. The aim of this study was to investigate the safety and efficacy of ERCP in patients with previous ACS. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of patients with previous ACS who underwent ERCP between January 2007 and August 2012. The clinical characteristics, ERCP diagnoses, treatment results, and complications were analyzed. RESULTS: Fifty patients underwent ERCP an average of 41.6 months after ACS. The most common indication for ERCP was calculous cholangitis. After deep biliary cannulation, endoscopic sphincterotomy, biliary stone removal and endoscopic biliary drainage were successfully performed. Immediate postsphincterotomy bleeding occurred in seven patients, which was successfully controlled using endoscopic therapy. Elevation of cardiac troponin I levels were observed in three patients (6%) before ERCP, and all of these patients were diagnosed with pancreatobiliary disease combined with recurrent ACS, which was treated with coronary artery stent insertion (n=2) and balloon angioplasty (n=1). CONCLUSIONS: Therapeutic ERCP is effective and safe in patients with previous ACS. Cardiac troponin I elevation should be considered a warning sign for recurrent ACS in patients who undergo ERCP.

Pretreatment antimicrobial susceptibility-guided vs. clarithromycin-based triple therapy for Helicobacter pylori eradication in a region with high rates of multiple drug resistance.

OBJECTIVES: Helicobacter pylori eradication rates with clarithromycin-based triple therapy are declining, and an alternative strategy is needed urgently. We sought to compare the efficacy of pretreatment antimicrobial susceptibility-guided vs. clarithromycin-based triple therapy for H. pylori eradication in a region with high rates of multiple drug resistance. METHODS: Consecutive H. pylori-infected patients with gastric epithelial neoplasms were randomized to receive antimicrobial susceptibility-guided therapy or clarithromycin-based triple therapy for 7 days. In patients in whom the infection was not eradicated, antibiotics were given according to an initial antimicrobial susceptibility test as a second-line therapy in both groups. Eradication rates, antibiotics resistance rates, and drug compliance owing to adverse effects were compared between the groups. RESULTS: In total, 114 patients were enrolled, and 112 completed the protocols. Drug compliance and side effects were similar between the groups. The intention-to-treat eradication rates were 94.7% (95% confidence interval (CI)=88.8-100%, 54/57) in the antimicrobial susceptibility-guided group and 71.9% (95% CI=60.2-83.5%, 41/57) in the clarithromycin-based triple therapy group after the initial treatment (P=0.002), whereas the per-protocol (PP) eradication rates were 96.4% (95% CI=91.5-100%, 54/56) in the antimicrobial susceptibility-guided group and 73.2% (95% CI=61.5-84.8%, 41/56) in the clarithromycin-based triple therapy group (P=0.001). In H. pylori with clarithromycin resistance, the eradication failure rate with first-line treatment was lower in the susceptibility-guided therapy group (0%, 0/12) compared with the clarithromycin-based triple therapy group (80.0%, 95% CI=59.7-100%, 12/15) by PP analysis (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Pretreatment antimicrobial susceptibility-guided therapy is more effective than clarithromycin-based triple therapy for H. pylori eradication in a region with high rates of multiple drug resistance.

Clinical outcomes of gastric variceal obliteration using N-butyl-2-cyanoacrylate in patients with acute gastric variceal hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: To evaluate the long-term efficacy and safety of endoscopic injection of N-butyl-2-cyanoacrylate (NBC; Histoacryl) for treatment of bleeding gastric varices. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed the records of 455 patients with gastric variceal hemorrhage (GVH) who were consecutively treated with NBC from January 2004 to July 2013, with a mean follow-up period of 582 days. The patients' endoscopic findings, initial hemostasis, complications, rebleeding rates, and bleeding-related death rates were reviewed. RESULTS: Hemostasis was achieved initially in 96.9% (441/455) of patients; rebleeding occurred in 35.2% (160/455), and the bleeding-related death rate was 6.8% (31/455) during follow-up. Complications included fever (6.8%), abdominal pain (3.7%), diarrhea (1.3%), spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (0.7%), bacteremia (0.4%), and embolism (0.2%). A red-color sign on concomitant esophageal varices (EVs) (p = 0.002) and previous history of variceal bleeding (p < 0.001) were significant risk factors for rebleeding within 1 year. The Child-Pugh score (p < 0.001), presence of hepatocellular carcinoma (p = 0.001), and failure of initial hemostasis (p < 0.001) were the risk factors most closely associated with bleeding-related death. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides a comprehensive overview of the outcomes and prognostic factors of patients with GVH. The results may help in the selection of effective treatment strategies for patients with GVH.

Cap-assisted ERCP in patients with difficult cannulation due to periampullary diverticulum.

Selective biliary cannulation is an essential prerequisite for therapeutic endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). The cap-fitted forward-viewing endoscope has been used for ERCP in patients with surgically altered anatomy. In this case series, 12 patients with periampullary diverticulum underwent ERCP using the cap-assisted forward-viewing endoscope due to failure of biliary cannulation using the standard technique. Successful ERCP was achieved in all patients with no serious complications.

Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography in Patients with Previous Acute Coronary Syndrome

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is considered a high-risk procedure in patients with previous acute coronary syndrome (ACS); however, clinical studies are rare in the literature. The aim of this study was to investigate the safety and efficacy of ERCP in patients with previous ACS. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of patients with previous ACS who underwent ERCP between January 2007 and August 2012. The clinical characteristics, ERCP diagnoses, treatment results, and complications were analyzed. RESULTS: Fifty patients underwent ERCP an average of 41.6 months after ACS. The most common indication for ERCP was calculous cholangitis. After deep biliary cannulation, endoscopic sphincterotomy, biliary stone removal and endoscopic biliary drainage were successfully performed. Immediate postsphincterotomy bleeding occurred in seven patients, which was successfully controlled using endoscopic therapy. Elevation of cardiac troponin I levels were observed in three patients (6%) before ERCP, and all of these patients were diagnosed with pancreatobiliary disease combined with recurrent ACS, which was treated with coronary artery stent insertion (n=2) and balloon angioplasty (n=1). CONCLUSIONS: Therapeutic ERCP is effective and safe in patients with previous ACS. Cardiac troponin I elevation should be considered a warning sign for recurrent ACS in patients who undergo ERCP.

Clinical outcomes of gastric variceal obliteration using N-butyl-2-cyanoacrylate in patients with acute gastric variceal hemorrhage

BACKGROUND/AIMS: To evaluate the long-term efficacy and safety of endoscopic injection of N-butyl-2-cyanoacrylate (NBC; Histoacryl) for treatment of bleeding gastric varices. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed the records of 455 patients with gastric variceal hemorrhage (GVH) who were consecutively treated with NBC from January 2004 to July 2013, with a mean follow-up period of 582 days. The patients' endoscopic findings, initial hemostasis, complications, rebleeding rates, and bleeding-related death rates were reviewed. RESULTS: Hemostasis was achieved initially in 96.9% (441/455) of patients; rebleeding occurred in 35.2% (160/455), and the bleeding-related death rate was 6.8% (31/455) during follow-up. Complications included fever (6.8%), abdominal pain (3.7%), diarrhea (1.3%), spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (0.7%), bacteremia (0.4%), and embolism (0.2%). A red-color sign on concomitant esophageal varices (EVs) (p = 0.002) and previous history of variceal bleeding (p < 0.001) were significant risk factors for rebleeding within 1 year. The Child-Pugh score (p < 0.001), presence of hepatocellular carcinoma (p = 0.001), and failure of initial hemostasis (p < 0.001) were the risk factors most closely associated with bleeding-related death. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides a comprehensive overview of the outcomes and prognostic factors of patients with GVH. The results may help in the selection of effective treatment strategies for patients with GVH.

Predictive factors for recurrence and survival in hepatocellular carcinoma in South Korea.

AIM: To evaluate the factors predicting for recurrence and to analyze survival of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). PATIENTS AND METHODS: A total of 743 patients who were consecutively diagnosed and treated with HCC were retrospectively analyzed from January 2004 to December 2012 at our institution. We analyzed their survival and tumor recurrence. RESULTS: On multivariate analysis, age >50 years, CLIP score <3, ALP <120 U/l, LDH <450 IU/l, CRP <0.8 mg/dl, tumor size <6 cm, no distant metastasis, and curative treatment modality were predictors for 1-year survival. CRP <0.8 mg/dl, Child-Pugh score <7, curative treatment modality and tumor size <6 cm were predictors for 3-year survival. Absence of vascular invasion and uninodular tumor type were predictors for 5-year survival. Multinodular tumor, tumor size >4 cm, and palliative treatment were independent risk factors for 1-year recurrence after initial treatment. CONCLUSION: This large study provides a comprehensive overview of the survival outcomes and prognostic factors regarding HCC, according to clinical characteristics, various treatment modalities, and the results will help in the selection of effective treatment strategies future.

Needle-knife fistulotomy in patients with periampullary diverticula and difficult bile duct cannulation.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Needle-knife fistulotomy has commonly been used for overcoming difficult bile duct cannulation. Periampullary diverticula (PAD) can be an impediment to endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) procedures. There are little data on needle-knife fistulotomy in patients with PAD. We evaluated the efficacy and safety of needle-knife fistulotomy between patients with and without PAD. METHODS: Data from December 2005 to October 2010 were reviewed. Patients who underwent needle-knife fistulotomy were divided into the group with PAD and the group without PAD (control group). The technical success and complications were compared. RESULTS: A total of 3012 ERCP cases were analyzed. Needle-knife fistulotomy was performed in 154 out of 3012 cases (5.1%) with 138 of these patients (89.6%) experiencing successful bile duct cannulation. The overall cannulation success rate was not significantly different between PAD group (n=33) and control group (n =121) (93.9% vs 88.4%; P=0.523). There was no significant difference in pancreatitis, bleeding and perforation between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: Needle-knife fistulotomy can be performed effectively and safely in patients with periampullary diverticula and difficult bile duct cannulation.

Repeated systematic surveillance of Kawasaki disease in Ontario from 1995 to 2006.

BACKGROUND: Rising incidences of Kawasaki disease (KD) have been reported worldwide. Reported herein are the results of 4 triennial KD surveillances conducted in Ontario. METHODS: Between 1995 and 2006 all hospitals in Ontario were asked on 4 occasions to identify all patients with discharge diagnoses of KD and report incident cases. RESULTS: The latest surveillance identified 697 new KD patients (100% response rate) for a total of 2378 KD patients through all 4 surveillances. Yearly incidence was 26.2/100,000 for <5 years old, 6.7/100,000 for 5-9 years old and 0.9/100,000 for 10-14 years old. KD incidence significantly increased from 1995 to 2006, although the increase seemed to plateau between the 3rd and 4th surveillance. There was an increase in the proportion of patients diagnosed with incomplete KD and a significant reduction in the rate of coronary artery abnormalities, possibly due to better disease recognition and treatment. Hospitals reporting <20 cases per surveillance were found to be more likely to report cases with incomplete KD. These patients were also less likely to be treated with i.v. immunoglobulin and aspirin but were more likely to be treated with antibiotics, suggesting uncertainties regarding diagnosis and management of KD patients in those centers. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of KD in Ontario is possibly one of the highest outside of Asia and has been rising since 1995. Although the most recent surveillance demonstrated improved cardiac outcomes, treatment delays or absence thereof continue to be a problem. Effective diagnosis and prompt treatment remain critical aspects of KD management.

Outcome and growth potential of left heart structures after neonatal intervention for aortic valve stenosis.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine trends of growth of left heart structures after intervention for neonatal aortic valve stenosis. BACKGROUND: The growth potential of left heart structures in neonatal aortic valve stenosis after relief of obstruction might influence risk for subsequent outcomes. METHODS: From 1994 to 2004, 53 patients underwent neonatal (< or =30 days old) balloon aortic valve dilation. Factors associated with time-related outcomes (death, reintervention, aortic valve replacement) and longitudinal changes in normalized left heart dimensions were sought. RESULTS: The median age at intervention was 3.5 days (range 1 to 30 days). During a median follow-up of 3.2 years ranging up to 10.9 years, there were 31 reinterventions on the aortic valve in 21 (40%) patients and 7 deaths (13%). The presence of moderate or severe left ventricular (LV) endocardial fibroelastosis was the only independent predictor for time-related mortality (hazard ratio 22.1; p = 0.004), and a smaller initial aortic valve annulus z-score was a significant independent predictor for aortic valve replacement (hazard ratio 0.63 per 1-U change; p = 0.007). Aortic valve annulus, aortic sinus, and LV dimension z-scores significantly increased over time, whereas mitral valve z-scores remained below normal. The structure's initial z-score and concomitant size of other left heart structures were significant independent factors associated with subsequent z-scores. CONCLUSIONS: There is potential catch-up growth of the aortic valve and LV over time for neonates after intervention for aortic valve stenosis. However, the continued hypoplasia of the mitral valve warrants further consideration in the long-term management of these patients.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of a proposed public health legislative/educational strategy to reduce tap water scald injuries in children.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the cost effectiveness of a public health legislative/educational strategy to reduce tap water scalds in children less than 10 years of age. DESIGN: Cost-effectiveness analysis conducted from the government perspective over a 10-year time horizon. POPULATION: Children under 10 years of age in Ontario, Canada INTERVENTIONS: Legislation to set thermostat settings on new domestic water heaters to lower temperatures (maximum 49 degrees C) plus annual educational notices to utility customers versus status quo. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The burden of tap water scalds, healthcare resource utilization, the cost and effectiveness of the proposed intervention, and the probabilities assigned to health outcomes were modeled in a decision analysis based on population-based data, patient charts, and the published medical literature. All costs and health outcomes beyond 1 year were discounted at 3%. RESULTS: An estimated 182 children under 10 require medical care for tap water scald injuries annually in Ontario (13.98 per 100,000). Of these, 65 require emergency department (ED) care only (median cost $C149 per injury), 103 require ED care with clinic follow-up ($C577 per injury), 14 require hospital admission ($C5203 per injury), and two require surgical skin grafting ($C28,526 per injury). The estimated cost of the intervention was $C51,000 annually, with a projected 56% reduction in tap water scald injuries. Over 10 years, the intervention group would show total costs of $C1.17 million and 704 scalds, compared with $C1.65 million and 1599 scalds in the status quo group. Therefore, the intervention would be cost saving, with an incremental ratio of $C531 saved per scald averted. Sensitivity analyses showed that the intervention would remain cost saving through a wide range of variable estimates. CONCLUSIONS: Legislation to lower thermostat settings on domestic water heaters plus annual educational notices to utility customers would generate cost savings while reducing the morbidity from tap water scalds in children.

Association between physical activity, adiposity, and lipid abnormalities in children with familial hyperlipidemia.

BACKGROUND: The benefits of physical activity in children have been studied extensively; however, its role in children with familial hyperlipidemia (FH) is unknown. OBJECTIVE: To determine associations between physical activity, adiposity, and lipid profiles in children with FH. DESIGN: A physical activity questionnaire was completed by 147 children with FH. Correlations between activity levels, body mass index (BMI), and fasting lipid profiles were determined. RESULTS: The mean age of patients was 12.5+/-3.2 years with a mean total cholesterol of 6.17 mmol/l (238 mg/dl), low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol of 4.43 (171), high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol of 1.08 (42), and triglyceride levels of 1.51 (134). Patients had greater weight for height indices than normal, with a mean BMI z score of +0.90+/-1.30 SD (P<0.001 versus normal), and with 21% of the participants being more than 2 SD above normal. Higher BMI z scores significantly correlated with higher triglyceride levels (r=0.33; P<0.0001) and greater time spent in sedentary pursuits (r=0.24; P=0.004), in particular watching television (r=0.26; P=0.003). The increased time that other family members spent in physical activity significantly correlated with a lower BMI z score (r=-0.21; P=0.01) of the patient and greater time spent in physical activity (r=0.24; P=0.003). There was no association between patients' physical activity levels and lipid profile or BMI. CONCLUSION: Similar to the general population, children with FH are also at risk of becoming overweight. Increased adiposity significantly correlated with the greater sedentary activities of the patient, lower physical activities of the family, and higher triglyceride levels. Physical activity levels of the patient correlated with family activity levels.

Outcomes of uncomplicated aortic valve stenosis presenting in infants.

BACKGROUND: The management of uncomplicated aortic valve stenosis presenting with critical obstruction in infants continues to be associated with significant morbidity and mortality. However, not all infants have critical obstruction, and outcomes spanning the broader spectrum of disease severity are less well defined. METHODS: In a 12-year period, 55 infants (<3 months of age) were seen with aortic valve stenosis and with anatomy suitable for biventricular repair. Clinical, echocardiographic, angiographic, management, and outcome data were reviewed. RESULTS: Status at presentation (median age 6 days) included signs of congestive heart failure in 20 patients, cardiovascular collapse in 5 patients, and an asymptomatic heart murmur in 30 patients. The initial echocardiogram showed reduced left ventricular function in 26% of patients, with a mean peak instantaneous gradient of 69 +/- 30 mm Hg in patients with normal function. There were 5 deaths (9%), all in patients with poor ventricular function. The initial intervention was balloon valvotomy in 24 patients and surgical valvotomy in 20 patients, with 11 patients having no intervention to date. The freedom-from-intervention rate was 69% at age 1 week, 58% at 1 month, 36% at 3 months, and 28% at 1 year. Patients without cardiovascular collapse, normal left ventricular function, and gradients <60 mm Hg at presentation (n =1 9) had better survival and longer freedom from intervention than patients with poor ventricular function or gradients >or=60 mm Hg (n = 36, P =.0001). CONCLUSION: Most infants with aortic valve stenosis receive intervention, although this may be safely delayed in selected patients with lower initial gradients and good left ventricular function.