Exosomes from differentially activated macrophages influence dormancy or resurgence of breast cancer cells within bone marrow stroma.

Breast cancer (BC) cells (BCCs) can retain cellular quiescence for decades, a phenomenon referred to as dormancy. BCCs show preference for the bone marrow (BM) where they can remain dormant for decades. Targeting BCCs within the BM is a challenge since the dormant BCCs reside within BM stroma, also residence for hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Dormant BCCs could behave as cancer stem cells (CSCs). The CSCs and HSCs are similar by function and also, by commonly expressed genes. The method by which dormant BCCs transition into clinically metastatic cells remains unclear. This study tested the hypothesis that macrophages (MΦs) within BM stroma, facilitates dormancy or reverse this state into metastatic cells. MΦs exhibiting an M2 phenotype constitute ~10% of cultured BM stroma. The M2 MΦs form gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) with CSCs, resulting in cycling quiescence, reduced proliferation and carboplatin resistance. In contrast, MΦs expressing the M1 phenotype reversed BC dormancy. Activation of M2a MΦs via the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) switched to M1 phenotype. The switch can occur by direct activation of M2a MΦs, or indirectly through activation of mesenchymal stem cells. M1 MΦ-derived exosomes activated NFкB to reverse quiescent BCCs to cycling cells. Using an in vivo model of BC dormancy, injected Mi MOs sensitized BCCs to carboplatin and increased host survival. In summary, we have shown how BM stromal MΦs, through exosomes, regulate the behavior of BCCs, by either inducing or reversing dormancy.

Impaired TGF-ß signaling and a defect in resolution of inflammation contribute to delayed wound healing in a female rat model of type 2 diabetes.

Wound healing (WH) impairment is a well-documented phenomenon in clinical and experimental diabetes. Sex hormones, in addition to a number of signaling pathways including transforming growth factor-ß1 (TGF-ß1)/Smads and TNF-α/NF-κB in macrophages and fibroblasts, appear to play a cardinal role in determining the rate and nature of WH. We hypothesized that a defect in resolution of inflammation and an enhancement in TNF-α/NF-κB activity induced by estrogen deficiency contribute to the impairment of TGF-ß signaling and delayed WH in diabetes models. Goto-Kakizaki (GK) rats and full thickness excisional wounds were used as models for type 2 diabetes (T2D) and WH, respectively. Parameters related to the various stages of WH were assessed using histomorphometry, western blotting, real-time PCR, immunofluorescence microscopy and ELISA-based assays. Retarded re-epithelialization, suppressed angiogenesis, delayed wound closure, reduced estrogen level and heightened states of oxidative stress were characteristic features of T2D wounds. These abnormalities were associated with a defect in resolution of inflammation, shifts in macrophage phenotypes, increased ß3-integrin expression, impaired wound TGF-ß1 signaling (↓p-Smad2/↑Smad7) and enhanced TNF-α/NFκB activity. Human/rat dermal fibroblasts of T2D, compared to corresponding control values, displayed resistance to TGF-ß-mediated responses including cell migration, myofibroblast formation and p-Smad2 generation. A pegylated form of soluble TNF receptor-1 (PEG-sTNF-RI) or estrogen replacement therapy significantly improved re-epithelialization and wound contraction, enhanced TGFß/Smad signaling, and polarized the differentiation of macrophages toward an M2 or "alternatively" activated phenotype, while limiting secondary inflammatory-mediated injury. Our data suggest that reduced estrogen levels and enhanced TNF-α/NF-κB activity delayed WH in T2D by attenuating TGFß/Smad signaling and impairing the resolution of inflammation; most of these defects were ameliorated with estrogen and/or PEG-sTNF-RI therapy.

Developmental ablation of Id1 and Id3 genes in the vasculature leads to postnatal cardiac phenotypes.

The Id1 and Id3 genes play major roles during cardiac development, despite their expression being confined to non-myocardial layers (endocardium-endothelium-epicardium). We previously described that Id1Id3 double knockout (dKO) mouse embryos die at mid-gestation from multiple cardiac defects, but early lethality precluded the studies of the roles of Id in the postnatal heart. To elucidate postnatal roles of Id genes, we ablated the Id3 gene and conditionally ablated the Id1 gene in the endothelium to generate conditional KO (cKO) embryos. We observed cardiac phenotypes at birth and at 6 months of age. Half of the Id cKO mice died at birth. Postnatal demise was associated with cardiac enlargement and defects in the ventricular septum, trabeculation and vasculature. Surviving Id cKO mice exhibited fibrotic vasculature, cardiac enlargement and decreased cardiac function. An abnormal vascular response was also observed in the healing of excisional skin wounds of Id cKO mice. Expression patterns of vascular, fibrotic and hypertrophic markers were altered in the Id cKO hearts, but addition of Insulin-Like Growth Factor binding protein-3 (IGFbp3) reversed gene expression profiles of vascular and fibrotic, but not hypertrophic markers. Thus, ablation of Id genes in the vasculature leads to distinct postnatal cardiac phenotypes. These findings provide important insights into the role/s of the endocardial network of the endothelial lineage in the development of cardiac disease, and highlight IGFbp3 as a potential link between Id and its vascular effectors.

Leptin upregulates VEGF in breast cancer via canonic and non-canonical signalling pathways and NFkappaB/HIF-1alpha activation.

High levels of VEGF and leptin are strongly linked to worse prognosis of breast cancer. Leptin signalling upregulates VEGF in human and mouse mammary tumor cells (MT), but the specific molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. Pharmacologic and genetic approaches were used to dissect the mechanism of leptin regulation of VEGF protein and mRNA in MT (4T1, EMT6 and MMT). A series of VEGF-promoter Luc-reporters (full-length and transcription factor-binding deletions) were transfected into MT to analyze leptin regulation of VEGF transcription. Deletion analysis of VEGF promoter and RNA knockdown shows that HIF-1alpha and NFkappaB are essentials for leptin regulation of VEGF. Leptin activation of HIF-1alpha was mainly linked to canonic (MAPK, PI-3K) and non-canonic (PKC, JNK and p38 MAP) signalling pathways. Leptin non-canonic signalling pathways (JNK, p38 MAP and to less extent PKC) were linked to NFkappaB activation. SP1 was involved in leptin regulation of VEGF in 4T1 cells. AP1 was not involved and AP2 repressed leptin-induced increase of VEGF. Overall, these data suggest that leptin signalling regulates VEGF mainly through HIF-1alpha and NFkappaB. These results delineate a comprehensive mechanism for leptin regulation of VEGF in MT. Disruption of leptin signalling could be used as a novel way to treat breast cancer.