Evaluating Sex Steroid Hormone Neuroprotection in Spinal Cord Injury in Animal Models: Is It Promising in the Clinic?

The primary mechanism of traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) comprises the initial mechanical trauma due to the transmission of energy to the spinal cord, subsequent deformity, and persistent compression. The secondary mechanism of injury, which involves structures that remained undamaged after the initial trauma, triggers alterations in microvascular perfusion, the liberation of free radicals and neurotransmitters, lipid peroxidation, alteration in ionic concentrations, and the consequent cell death by necrosis and apoptosis. Research in the treatment of SCI has sought to develop early therapeutic interventions that mitigate the effects of these pathophysiological mechanisms. Clinical and experimental evidence has demonstrated the therapeutic benefits of sex-steroid hormone administration after traumatic brain injury and SCI. The administration of estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone has been associated with neuroprotective effects, better neurological recovery, and decreased mortality after SCI. This review evaluated evidence supporting hormone-related neuroprotection over SCI and the possible underlying mechanisms in animal models. As neuroprotection has been associated with signaling pathways, the effects of these hormones are observed on astrocytes and microglia, modulating the inflammatory response, cerebral blood flow, and metabolism, mediating glutamate excitotoxicity, and their antioxidant effects. Based on the current evidence, it is essential to analyze the benefit of sex steroid hormone therapy in the clinical management of patients with SCI.

Focused ultrasound on the substantia nigra enables safe neurotensin-polyplex nanoparticle-mediated gene delivery to dopaminergic neurons intranasally and by blood circulation.

Neurotensin-polyplex nanoparticles provide efficient gene transfection of nigral dopaminergic neurons when intracerebrally injected in preclinical trials of Parkinson's disease because they do not cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Therefore, this study aimed to open BBB with focused ultrasound (FUS) on the substantia nigra to attain systemic and intranasal transfections and evaluate its detrimental effect in rats. Systemically injected Evans Blue showed that a two-pulse FUS opened the nigral BBB. Accordingly, 35 µL of neurotensin-polyplex nanoparticles encompassing the green fluorescent protein plasmid (79.6 nm mean size and + 1.3 mV Zeta-potential) caused its expression in tyrosine hydroxylase(+) cells (dopaminergic neurons) of both substantiae nigrae upon delivery via internal carotid artery, retro-orbital venous sinus, or nasal mucosa 30 min after FUS. The intracarotid delivery yielded the highest transgene expression, followed by intranasal and venous administration. However, FUS caused neuroinflammation displayed by infiltrated lymphocytes (positive to cluster of differentiation 45), activated microglia (positive to ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1), neurotoxic A1 astrocytes (positive to glial fibrillary acidic protein and complement component 3), and neurotrophic A2 astrocytes (positive to glial fibrillary acidic protein and S100 calcium-binding protein A10), that ended 15 days after FUS. Dopaminergic neurons and axonal projections decreased but recuperated basal values on day 15 after transfection, correlating with a decrease and recovery of locomotor behavior. In conclusion, FUS caused transient neuroinflammation and reversible neuronal affection but allowed systemic and intranasal transfection of dopaminergic neurons in both substantiae nigrae. Therefore, FUS could advance neurotensin-polyplex nanotechnology to clinical trials for Parkinson's disease.

Tibolone Improves Locomotor Function in a Rat Model of Spinal Cord Injury by Modulating Apoptosis and Autophagy.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) harms patients' health and social and economic well-being. Unfortunately, fully effective therapeutic strategies have yet to be developed to treat this disease, affecting millions worldwide. Apoptosis and autophagy are critical cell death signaling pathways after SCI that should be targeted for early therapeutic interventions to mitigate their adverse effects and promote functional recovery. Tibolone (TIB) is a selective tissue estrogen activity regulator (STEAR) with neuroprotective properties demonstrated in some experimental models. This study aimed to investigate the effect of TIB on apoptotic cell death and autophagy after SCI and verify whether TIB promotes motor function recovery. A moderate contusion SCI was produced at thoracic level 9 (T9) in male Sprague Dawley rats. Subsequently, animals received a daily dose of TIB orally and were sacrificed at 1, 3, 14 or 30 days post-injury. Tissue samples were collected for morphometric and immunofluorescence analysis to identify tissue damage and the percentage of neurons at the injury site. Autophagic (Beclin-1, LC3-I/LC3-II, p62) and apoptotic (Caspase 3) markers were also analyzed via Western blot. Finally, motor function was assessed using the BBB scale. TIB administration significantly increased the amount of preserved tissue (p < 0.05), improved the recovery of motor function (p < 0.001) and modulated the expression of autophagy markers in a time-dependent manner while consistently inhibiting apoptosis (p < 0.05). Therefore, TIB could be a therapeutic alternative for the recovery of motor function after SCI.

Gene expression and locomotor recovery in adult rats with spinal cord injury and plasma-synthesized polypyrrole/iodine application combined with a mixed rehabilitation scheme.

Introduction: Spinal cord injury (SCI) can cause paralysis, for which effective therapeutic strategies have not been developed yet. The only accepted strategy for patients is rehabilitation (RB), although this does not allow complete recovery of lost functions, which makes it necessary to combine it with strategies such as plasma-synthesized polypyrrole/iodine (PPy/I), a biopolymer with different physicochemical properties than PPy synthesized by conventional methods. After SCI in rats, PPy/I promotes functional recovery. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to increase the beneficial effects of both strategies and identify which genes activate PPy/I when applied alone or in combination with a mixed scheme of RB by swimming and enriched environment (SW/EE) in rats with SCI. Methods: Microarray analysis was performed to identify mechanisms of action underlying the effects of PPy/I and PPy/I+SW/EE on motor function recovery as evaluated by the BBB scale. Results: Results showed robust upregulation by PPy/I in genes related to the developmental process, biogenesis, synapse, and synaptic vesicle trafficking. In addition, PPy/I+SW/EE increased the expression of genes related to proliferation, biogenesis, cell development, morphogenesis, cell differentiation, neurogenesis, neuron development, and synapse formation processes. Immunofluorescence analysis showed the expression of ß-III tubulin in all groups, a decreased expression of caspase-3 in the PPy/I group and GFAP in the PPy/I+SW/EE group (p < 0.05). Better preservation of nerve tissue was observed in PPy/I and PPy/SW/EE groups (p < 0.05). In the BBB scale, the control group scored 1.72 ± 0.41, animals with PPy/I treatment scored 4.23 ± 0.33, and those with PPy/I+SW/EE scored 9.13 ± 0.43 1 month after follow-up. Conclusion: Thus, PPy/I+SW/EE could represent a therapeutic alternative for motor function recovery after SCI.

LPS Triggers Acute Neuroinflammation and Parkinsonism Involving NLRP3 Inflammasome Pathway and Mitochondrial CI Dysfunction in the Rat.

Whether neuroinflammation leads to dopaminergic nigrostriatal system neurodegeneration is controversial. We addressed this issue by inducing acute neuroinflammation in the substantia nigra (SN) with a single local administration (5 µg/2 µL saline solution) of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Neuroinflammatory variables were assessed from 48 h to 30 days after the injury by immunostaining for activated microglia (Iba-1 +), neurotoxic A1 astrocytes (C3 + and GFAP +), and active caspase-1. We also evaluated NLRP3 activation and Il-1ß levels by western blot and mitochondrial complex I (CI) activity. Fever and sickness behavior was assessed for 24 h, and motor behavior deficits were followed up until day 30. On this day, we evaluated the cellular senescence marker ß-galactosidase (ß-Gal) in the SN and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in the SN and striatum. After LPS injection, Iba-1 (+), C3 (+), and S100A10 (+) cells were maximally present at 48 h and reached basal levels on day 30. NLRP3 activation occurred at 24 h and was followed by a rise of active caspase-1 (+), Il-1ß, and decreased mitochondrial CI activity until 48 h. A significant loss of nigral TH (+) cells and striatal terminals was associated with motor deficits on day 30. The remaining TH (+) cells were ß-Gal (+), suggesting senescent dopaminergic neurons. All the histopathological changes also appeared on the contralateral side. Our results show that unilaterally LPS-induced neuroinflammation can cause bilateral neurodegeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system and are relevant for understanding Parkinson's disease (PD) neuropathology.

Inflammation: A Target for Treatment in Spinal Cord Injury.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a significant cause of disability, and treatment alternatives that generate beneficial outcomes and have no side effects are urgently needed. SCI may be treatable if intervention is initiated promptly. Therefore, several treatment proposals are currently being evaluated. Inflammation is part of a complex physiological response to injury or harmful stimuli induced by mechanical, chemical, or immunological agents. Neuroinflammation is one of the principal secondary changes following SCI and plays a crucial role in modulating the pathological progression of acute and chronic SCI. This review describes the main inflammatory events occurring after SCI and discusses recently proposed potential treatments and therapeutic agents that regulate inflammation after insult in animal models.

Synthetic Monopartite Peptide That Enables the Nuclear Import of Genes Delivered by the Neurotensin-Polyplex Vector.

Neurotensin (NTS)-polyplex is a multicomponent nonviral vector that enables gene delivery via internalization of the neurotensin type 1 receptor (NTSR1) to dopaminergic neurons and cancer cells. An approach to improving its therapeutic safety is replacing the viral karyophilic component (peptide KPSV40; MAPTKRKGSCPGAAPNKPK), which performs the nuclear import activity, by a shorter synthetic peptide (KPRa; KMAPKKRK). We explored this issue and the mechanism of plasmid DNA translocation through the expression of the green fluorescent protein or red fluorescent protein fused with KPRa and internalization assays and whole-cell patch-clamp configuration experiments in a single cell together with importin α/ß pathway blockers. We showed that KPRa electrostatically bound to plasmid DNA increased the transgene expression compared with KPSV40 and enabled nuclear translocation of KPRa-fused red fluorescent proteins and plasmid DNA. Such translocation was blocked with ivermectin or mifepristone, suggesting importin α/ß pathway mediation. KPRa also enabled NTS-polyplex-mediated expression of reporter or physiological genes such as human mesencephalic-derived neurotrophic factor (hMANF) in dopaminergic neurons in vivo. KPRa is a synthetic monopartite peptide that showed nuclear import activity in NTS-polyplex vector-mediated gene delivery. KPRa could also improve the transfection of other nonviral vectors used in gene therapy.

Recovery of motor function after traumatic spinal cord injury by using plasma-synthesized polypyrrole/iodine application in combination with a mixed rehabilitation scheme.

Traumatic spinal cord injury (TSCI) can cause paralysis and permanent disability. Rehabilitation (RB) is currently the only accepted treatment, although its beneficial effect is limited. The development of biomaterials has provided therapeutic possibilities for TSCI, where our research group previously showed that the plasma-synthesized polypyrrole/iodine (PPy/I), a biopolymer with different physicochemical characteristics than those of the PPy synthesized by conventional methods, promotes recovery of motor function after TSCI. The present study evaluated if the plasma-synthesized PPy/I applied in combination with RB could increase its beneficial effects and the mechanisms involved. Adult rats with TSCI were divided into no treatment (control); biopolymer (PPy/I); mixed RB by swimming and enriched environment (SW/EE); and combined treatment (PPy/I + SW/EE) groups. Eight weeks after TSCI, the general health of the animals that received any of the treatments was better than the control animals. Functional recovery evaluated by two scales was better and was achieved in less time with the PPy/I + SW/EE combination. All treatments significantly increased ßIII-tubulin (nerve plasticity) expression, but only PPy/I increased GAP-43 (nerve regeneration) and MBP (myelination) expression when were analyzed by immunohistochemistry. The expression of GFAP (glial scar) decreased in treated groups when determined by histochemistry, while morphometric analysis showed that tissue was better preserved when PPy/I and PPy/I + SW/EE were administered. The application of PPy/I + SW/EE, promotes the preservation of nervous tissue, and the expression of molecules related to plasticity as ßIII-tubulin, reduces the glial scar, improves general health and allows the recovery of motor function after TSCI. The implant of the biomaterial polypyrrole/iodine (PPy/I) synthesized by plasma (an unconventional synthesis method), in combination with a mixed rehabilitation scheme with swimming and enriched environment applied after a traumatic spinal cord injury, promotes expression of GAP-43 and ßIII-tubulin (molecules related to plasticity and nerve regeneration) and reduces the expression of GFAP (molecule related to the formation of the glial scar). Both effects together allow the formation of nerve fibers, the reconnection of the spinal cord in the area of injury and the recovery of lost motor function. The figure shows the colocalization (yellow) of ßIII-tubilin (red) and GAP-43 (green) in fibers crossing the epicenter of the injury (arrowheads) that reconnect the rostral and caudal ends of the injured spinal cord and allowed recovery of motor function.

The Importance of Natural Antioxidants in the Treatment of Spinal Cord Injury in Animal Models: An Overview.

Patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) face devastating health, social, and financial consequences, as well as their families and caregivers. Reducing the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress are essential strategies for SCI treatment. Some compounds from traditional medicine could be useful to decrease ROS generated after SCI. This review is aimed at highlighting the importance of some natural compounds with antioxidant capacity used in traditional medicine to treat traumatic SCI. An electronic search of published articles describing animal models of SCI treated with natural compounds from traditional medicine was conducted using the following terms: Spinal Cord Injuries (MeSH terms) AND Models, Animal (MeSH terms) AND [Reactive Oxygen Species (MeSH terms) AND/OR Oxidative Stress (MeSH term)] AND Medicine, Traditional (MeSH terms). Articles reported from 2010 to 2018 were included. The results were further screened by title and abstract for studies performed in rats, mice, and nonhuman primates. The effects of these natural compounds are discussed, including their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic properties. Moreover, the antioxidant properties of natural compounds were emphasized since oxidative stress has a fundamental role in the generation and progression of several pathologies of the nervous system. The use of these compounds diminishes toxic effects due to their high antioxidant capacity. These compounds have been tested in animal models with promising results; however, no clinical studies have been conducted in humans. Further research of these natural compounds is crucial to a better understanding of their effects in patients with SCI.

Prophylactic Zinc and Therapeutic Selenium Administration Increases the Antioxidant Enzyme Activity in the Rat Temporoparietal Cortex and Improves Memory after a Transient Hypoxia-Ischemia.

In the cerebral hypoxia-ischemia rat model, the prophylactic administration of zinc can cause either cytotoxicity or preconditioning effect, whereas the therapeutic administration of selenium decreases the ischemic damage. Herein, we aimed to explore whether supplementation of low doses of prophylactic zinc and therapeutic selenium could protect from a transient hypoxic-ischemic event. We administrated zinc (0.2 mg/kg of body weight; ip) daily for 14 days before a 10 min common carotid artery occlusion (CCAO). After CCAO, we administrated sodium selenite (6 µg/kg of body weight; ip) daily for 7 days. In the temporoparietal cerebral cortex, we determined nitrites by the Griess method and lipid peroxidation by the Gerard-Monnier assay. qPCR was used to measure mRNA of nitric oxide synthases, antioxidant enzymes, chemokines, and their receptors. We measured the enzymatic activity of SOD and GPx and protein levels of chemokines and their receptors by ELISA. We evaluated long-term memory using the Morris-Water maze test. Our results showed that prophylactic administration of zinc caused a preconditioning effect, decreasing nitrosative/oxidative stress and increasing GPx and SOD expression and activity, as well as eNOS expression. The therapeutic administration of selenium maintained this preconditioning effect up to the late phase of hypoxia-ischemia. Ccl2, Ccr2, Cxcl12, and Cxcr4 were upregulated, and long-term memory was improved. Pyknotic cells were decreased suggesting prevention of neuronal cell death. Our results show that the prophylactic zinc and therapeutic selenium administration induces effective neuroprotection in the early and late phases after CCAO.

Neurturin overexpression in dopaminergic neurons induces presynaptic and postsynaptic structural changes in rats with chronic 6-hydroxydopamine lesion.

The structural effect of neurturin (NRTN) on the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system in animals remains unknown, although NRTN has been shown to be effective in Parkinson's disease animal models. Herein, we aimed to demonstrate that NRTN overexpression in dopaminergic neurons stimulates both neurite outgrowths in the nigrostriatal pathway and striatal dendritic spines in aging rats with chronic 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesion. At week 12 after lesion, pTracer-mNRTN-His or pGreenLantern-1 plasmids were intranigrally transfected using the NTS-polyplex nanoparticles system. We showed that the transgenic expression in dopaminergic neurons remained until the end of the study (12 weeks). Only animals expressing NRTN-His showed recovery of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)+ cells (28 ± 2%), their neurites (32 ± 2%) and the neuron-specific cytoskeletal marker ß-III-tubulin in the substantia nigra; striatal TH(+) fibers were also recovered (52 ± 3%), when compared to the healthy condition. Neurotensin receptor type 1 levels were also significantly recovered in the substantia nigra and striatum. Dopamine recovery was 70 ± 4% in the striatum and complete in the substantia nigra. The number of dendritic spines of striatal medium spiny neurons was also significantly increased, but the recovery was not complete. Drug-activated circling behavior decreased by 73 ± 2% (methamphetamine) and 89 ± 1% (apomorphine). Similar decrease was observed in the spontaneous motor behavior. Our results demonstrate that NRTN causes presynaptic and postsynaptic restoration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system after a 6-OHDA-induced chronic lesion. However, those improvements did not reach the healthy condition, suggesting that NRTN exerts lesser neurotrophic effects than other neurotrophic approaches.

Regulation of human GDNF gene expression in nigral dopaminergic neurons using a new doxycycline-regulated NTS-polyplex nanoparticle system.

The human glial-cell derived neurotrophic factor (hGDNF) gene transfer by neurotensin (NTS)-polyplex nanoparticles functionally restores the dopamine nigrostriatal system in experimental Parkinson's disease models. However, high levels of sustained expression of GDNF eventually can cause harmful effects. Herein, we report an improved NTS-polyplex nanoparticle system that enables regulation of hGDNF expression within dopaminergic neurons. We constructed NTS-polyplex nanoparticles containing a single bifunctional plasmid that codes for the reverse tetracycline-controlled transactivator advanced (rtTA-Adv) under the control of NBRE3x promoter, and for hGDNF under the control of tetracycline-response element (TRE). Another bifunctional plasmid contained the enhanced green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene. Transient transfection experiments in N1E-115-Nurr1 cells showed that doxycycline (100 ng/mL) activates hGDNF and GFP expression. Doxycycline (5 mg/kg, i.p.) administration in rats activated hGDNF expression only in transfected dopaminergic neurons, whereas doxycycline withdrawal silenced transgene expression. Our results offer a specific doxycycline-regulated system suitable for nanomedicine-based treatment of Parkinson's disease.

Neurotensin-polyplex-mediated brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene delivery into nigral dopamine neurons prevents nigrostriatal degeneration in a rat model of early Parkinson's disease.

BACKGROUND: The neurotrophin Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) influences nigral dopaminergic neurons via autocrine and paracrine mechanisms. The reduction of BDNF expression in Parkinson's disease substantia nigra (SN) might contribute to the death of dopaminergic neurons because inhibiting BDNF expression in the SN causes parkinsonism in the rat. This study aimed to demonstrate that increasing BDNF expression in dopaminergic neurons of rats with one week of 6-hydroxydopamine lesion recovers from parkinsonism. The plasmids phDAT-BDNF-flag and phDAT-EGFP, coding for enhanced green fluorescent protein, were transfected using neurotensin (NTS)-polyplex, which enables delivery of genes into the dopaminergic neurons via neurotensin-receptor type 1 (NTSR1) internalization. RESULTS: Two weeks after transfections, RT-PCR and immunofluorescence techniques showed that the residual dopaminergic neurons retain NTSR1 expression and susceptibility to be transfected by the NTS-polyplex. phDAT-BDNF-flag transfection did not increase dopaminergic neurons, but caused 7-fold increase in dopamine fibers within the SN and 5-fold increase in innervation and dopamine levels in the striatum. These neurotrophic effects were accompanied by a significant improvement in motor behavior. CONCLUSIONS: NTS-polyplex-mediated BDNF overexpression in dopaminergic neurons has proven to be effective to remit hemiparkinsonism in the rat. This BDNF gene therapy might be helpful in the early stage of Parkinson's disease.

Safety of the intravenous administration of neurotensin-polyplex nanoparticles in BALB/c mice.

Neurotensin (NTS)-polyplex is a gene nanocarrier that has potential nanomedicine-based applications for the treatment of Parkinson's disease and cancers of cells expressing NTS receptor type 1. We assessed the acute inflammatory response to NTS-polyplex carrying a reporter gene in BALB/c mice. The intravenous injection of NTS-polyplex caused the specific expression of the reporter gene in gastrointestinal cells. Six hours after an intravenous injection of propidium iodide labeled-NTS-polyplex, fluorescent spots were located in the cells of the organs with a mononuclear phagocyte system, suggesting NTS-polyplex clearance. In contrast to lipopolysaccharide and carbon tetrachloride, NTS-polyplex did not increase the serum levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, bilirubin, aspartate transaminase, and alanine transaminase. NTS-polyplex increased the levels of serum amyloid A and alkaline phosphatase, but these levels normalized after 24 h. Compared to carrageenan, the local injection of NTS-polyplex did not produce inflammation. Our results support the safety of NTS-polyplex. FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR: This study focuses on the safety of neurotensin (NTS)-polyplex, a gene nanocarrier that has potential in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and cancers of cells expressing NTS receptor type 1. NTS polyplex demonstrates a better safety profile compared with carrageenan, lipopolysaccharide, and carbon tetrachloride in a murine model.

Vitamin B12 deficiency reduces proliferation and promotes differentiation of neuroblastoma cells and up-regulates PP2A, proNGF, and TACE.

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin, Cbl) is indispensable for proper brain development and functioning, suggesting that it has neurotrophic effects beside its well-known importance in metabolism. The molecular basis of these effects remains hypothetical, one of the reasons being that no efficient cell model has been made available for investigating the consequences of B12 cellular deficiency in neuronal cells. Here, we designed an approach by stable transfection of NIE115 neuroblastoma cells to impose the anchorage of a chimeric B12-binding protein, transcobalamin-oleosin (TO) to the intracellular membrane. This model produced an intracellular sequestration of B12 evidenced by decreased methyl-Cbl and S-adenosylmethionine and increased homocysteine and methylmalonic acid concentrations. B12 deficiency affected the proliferation of NIE115 cells through an overall increase in catalytic protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), despite its demethylation. It promoted cellular differentiation by improving initial outgrowth of neurites and, at the molecular level, by augmenting the levels of proNGF and p75(NTR). The up-regulation of PP2A and pro-nerve growth factor (NGF) triggered changes in ERK1/2 and Akt, two signaling pathways that influence the balance between proliferation and neurite outgrowth. Compared with control cells, a 2-fold increase of p75(NTR)-regulated intramembraneous proteolysis (RIP) was observed in proliferating TO cells (P < 0.0001) that was associated with an increased expression of two tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha converting enzyme (TACE) secretase enzymes, Adam 10 and Adam 17. In conclusion, our data show that B12 cellular deficiency produces a slower proliferation and a speedier differentiation of neuroblastoma cells through interacting signaling pathways that are related with increased expression of PP2A, proNGF, and TACE.

Vitamin B12-impaired metabolism produces apoptosis and Parkinson phenotype in rats expressing the transcobalamin-oleosin chimera in substantia nigra.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin B12 is indispensable for proper brain functioning and cytosolic synthesis of S-adenosylmethionine. Whether its deficiency produces effects on viability and apoptosis of neurons remains unknown. There is a particular interest in investigating these effects in Parkinson disease where Levodopa treatment is known to increase the consumption of S-adenosylmethionine. To cause deprivation of vitamin B12, we have recently developed a cell model that produces decreased synthesis of S-adenosylmethionine by anchoring transcobalamin (TCII) to the reticulum through its fusion with Oleosin (OLEO). METHODOLOGY: Gene constructs including transcobalamin-oleosin (TCII-OLEO) and control constructs, green fluorescent protein-transcobalamin-oleosin (GFP-TCII-OLEO), oleosin-transcobalamin (OLEO-TCII), TCII and OLEO were used for expression in N1E-115 cells (mouse neuroblastoma) and in substantia nigra of adult rats, using a targeted transfection with a Neurotensin polyplex system. We studied the viability and the apoptosis in the transfected cells and targeted tissue. The turning behavior was evaluated in the rats transfected with the different plasmids. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The transfection of N1E-115 cells by the TCII-OLEO-expressing plasmid significantly affected cell viability and increased immunoreactivity of cleaved Caspase-3. No change in propidium iodide uptake (used as a necrosis marker) was observed. The transfected rats lost neurons immunoreactive to tyrosine hydroxylase. The expression of TCII-OLEO was observed in cells immunoreactive to tyrosine hydroxylase of the substantia nigra, with a superimposed expression of cleaved Caspase-3. These cellular and tissular effects were not observed with the control plasmids. Rats transfected with TCII-OLEO expressing plasmid presented with a significantly higher number of turns, compared with those transfected with the other plasmids. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: In conclusion, the TCII-OLEO transfection was responsible for apoptosis in N1E-115 cells and rat substantia nigra and for Parkinson-like phenotype. This suggests evaluating whether vitamin B12 deficit could aggravate the PD in patients under Levodopa therapy by impairing S-adenosylmethionine synthesis in substantia nigra.

Anchoring secreted proteins in endoplasmic reticulum by plant oleosin: the example of vitamin B12 cellular sequestration by transcobalamin.

BACKGROUND: Oleosin is a plant protein localized to lipid droplets and endoplasmic reticulum of plant cells. Our idea was to use it to target functional secretory proteins of interest to the cytosolic side of the endoplasmic reticulum of mammalian cells, through expressing oleosin-containing chimeras. We have designed this approach to create cellular models deficient in vitamin B12 (cobalamin) because of the known problematics associated to the obtainment of effective vitamin B12 deficient cell models. This was achieved by the overexpression of transcobalamin inside cells through anchoring to oleosin. METHODOLOGY: chimera gene constructs including transcobalamin-oleosin (TC-O), green fluorescent protein-transcobalamin-oleosin (GFP-TC-O) and oleosin-transcobalamin (O-TC) were inserted into pAcSG2 and pCDNA3 vectors for expression in sf9 insect cells, Caco2 (colon carcinoma), NIE-115 (mouse neuroblastoma), HEK (human embryonic kidney), COS-7 (Green Monkey SV40-transfected kidney fibroblasts) and CHO (Chinese hamster ovary cells). The subcellular localization, the changes in vitamin B12 binding activity and the metabolic consequences were investigated in both Caco2 and NIE-115 cells. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: vitamin B12 binding was dramatically higher in TC-O than that in O-TC and wild type (WT). The expression of GFP-TC-O was observed in all cell lines and found to be co-localized with an ER-targeted red fluorescent protein and calreticulin of the endoplasmic reticulum in Caco2 and COS-7 cells. The overexpression of TC-O led to B12 deficiency, evidenced by impaired conversion of cyano-cobalamin to ado-cobalamin and methyl-cobalamin, decreased methionine synthase activity and reduced S-adenosyl methionine to S-adenosyl homocysteine ratio, as well as increases in homocysteine and methylmalonic acid concentration. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: the heterologous expression of TC-O in mammalian cells can be used as an effective strategy for investigating the cellular consequences of vitamin B12 deficiency. More generally, expression of oleosin-anchored proteins could be an interesting tool in cell engineering for studying proteins of pharmacological interest.