Prevalence, determinants and care-seeking behaviour for anxiety and depression in Nepalese population: a secondary analysis of data from Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2022.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence and factors associated with anxiety and depression and the care-seeking behaviour among Nepalese population. DESIGN AND SETTINGS: Secondary analysis of the data from nationally representative Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2022. PARTICIPANTS: Analysed data of 12 355 participants (7442 females and 4913 males) aged 15-49 years. OUTCOME MEASURES: Depression and anxiety were assessed using Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) and Generalised Anxiety Disorder Assessment (GAD-7) tools, respectively. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: We performed weighted analysis to account for the complex survey design. We presented categorical variables as frequency, per cent and 95% confidence interval (CI), whereas numerical variables were presented as median, inter-quartile range (IQR) and 95% CI. We performed univariate and multivariable logistic regression to determine factors associated with anxiety and depression, and results were presented as crude OR (COR), adjusted OR (AOR) and their 95% CI. RESULTS: The prevalence of depression and anxiety were 4.0% (95% CI 3.5 to 4.5) and 17.7% (95% CI 16.5 to 18.9), respectively. Divorced or separated participants were found to have higher odds of developing anxiety (AOR 2.40, 95% CI 1.74 to 3.31) and depression (AOR 3.16, 95% CI 1.84 to 5.42). Among ethnic groups, Janajati had lower odds of developing anxiety (AOR 0.77, 95% CI 0.65 to 0.92) and depression (AOR 0.67, 95% CI 0.49 to 0.93) compared with Brahmin/Chhetri. Regarding disability, participants with some difficulty had higher odds of developing anxiety (AOR 1.81, 95% CI 1.56 to 2.10) and depression (AOR 1.94, 95% CI 1.51 to 2.49), and those with a lot of difficulty had higher odds of anxiety (AOR 2.09, 95% CI 1.48 to 2.96) and depression (AOR 2.04, 95% CI 1.06 to 3.90) compared with those without any disability. Among those who had symptoms of anxiety or depression, only 32.9% (95% CI 30.4 to 34.4) sought help for the conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Marital status and disability status were positively associated with anxiety and depression, whereas Janajati ethnicity had relatively lower odds of experiencing anxiety and depression. It is essential to develop interventions and policies targeting females and divorced individuals to help reduce the burden of anxiety and depression in Nepal.

Health facilities readiness for standard precautions to infection prevention and control in Nepal: A secondary analysis of Nepal Health Facility Survey 2021.

BACKGROUND: Improvements in standard precaution related to infection prevention and control (IPC) at the national and local-level health facilities (HFs) are critical to ensuring patient's safety, preventing healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), mitigating Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR), protecting health workers, and improving trust in HFs. This study aimed to assess HF's readiness to implement standard precautions for IPC in Nepal. METHODS: This study conducted a secondary analysis of the nationally-representative Nepal Health Facility Survey (NHFS) 2021 data and used the Service Availability and Readiness Assessment (SARA) Manual from the World Health Organization (WHO) to examine the HF's readiness to implement standard precautions for IPC. The readiness score for IPC was calculated for eight service delivery domains based on the availability of eight tracer items: guidelines for standard precautions, latex gloves, soap and running water or alcohol-based hand rub, single use of standard disposal or auto-disable syringes, disinfectant, safe final disposal of sharps, safe final disposal of infectious wastes, and appropriate storage of infectious waste. We used simple and multiple linear regression and quantile regression models to examine the association of HF's readiness with their characteristics. Results were presented as beta (ß) coefficients and 95% confidence interval (95% CI). RESULTS: The overall readiness scores of all HFs, federal/provincial hospitals, local HFs, and private hospitals were 59.9±15.6, 67.1±14.4, 59.6±15.6, and 62.6±15.5, respectively. Across all eight health service delivery domains, the HFs' readiness for tuberculosis services was the lowest (57.8±20.0) and highest for delivery and newborn care services (67.1±15.6). The HFs performing quality assurance activities (ß = 3.68; 95%CI: 1.84, 5.51), reviewing clients' opinions (ß = 6.66; 95%CI: 2.54, 10.77), and HFs with a monthly meeting (ß = 3.28; 95%CI: 1.08, 5.49) had higher readiness scores. The HFs from Bagmati, Gandaki, Lumbini, Karnali and Sudurpaschim had readiness scores higher by 7.80 (95%CI: 5.24, 10.36), 7.73 (95%CI: 4.83, 10.62), 4.76 (95%CI: 2.00, 7.52), 9.40 (95%CI: 6.11, 12.68), and 3.77 (95%CI: 0.81, 6.74) compared to Koshi. CONCLUSION: The readiness of HFs to implement standard precautions was higher in HFs with quality assurance activities, monthly HF meetings, and mechanisms for reviewing clients' opinions. Emphasizing quality assurance activities, implementing client feedback mechanisms, and promoting effective management practices in HFs with poor readiness can help to enhance IPC efforts.

Unmet need for family planning and associated factors among currently married women in Nepal: A further analysis of Nepal Demographic and Health Survey-2022.

INTRODUCTION: Family planning (FP) is crucial for improving maternal and newborn health outcomes, promoting gender equality, and reducing poverty. Unmet FP needs persist globally, especially in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa leading to unintended pregnancies, unsafe abortions, and maternal fatalities. This study aims to identify the determinants of unmet needs for FP from a nationally representative survey. METHODS: We analyzed the data of 11,180 currently married women from nationally representative Nepal Health Demographic Survey 2022. We conducted weighted analysis in R statistical software to account complex survey design and non-response rate. We conducted univariate and multivariable binary and multinomial logistic regression to assess association of unmet need for FP with independent variables including place of residence, province, ecological belt, ethnicity, religion, current age, participant's and husband's education, occupation, wealth quintile, parity, desire for child, and media exposure. RESULTS: The total unmet FP need was 20.8% (95%CI: 19.7, 21.9) accounting 13.4% (95%CI: 12.5, 14.4) for unmet need for limiting and 7.4% (95%CI: 6.8, 8.0) for unmet for spacing. Lower odds of total unmet need for FP were present in 20-34 years and 35-49 years compared to <20 years, women belonging to Madhesi ethnic group (AOR: 0.78; 95%CI: 0.64, 0.95) compared to Brahmin/Chhetri, women from richest (AOR: 0.69; 95%CI: 0.56, 0.84), richer (AOR: 0.82; 95%CI: 0.68, 0.97) and middle wealth quintile (AOR: 0.82; 95%CI:0.70, 0.98) groups compared poorest wealth quintile group and women belonging to rural area (AOR: 0.89; 95%CI: 0.80, 0.99) compared to urban area. Higher odds of unmet need for FP were present among women with basic (AOR: 1.34; 95%CI: 1.17, 1.54), and secondary level (AOR: 1.32; 95%CI: 1.12, 1.56) education compared to women without education, among women from Madhesh (AOR: 1.56; 95%CI: 1.22, 1.98), Gandaki (AOR: 2.11; 95%CI: 1.66, 2.68), Lumbini (AOR: 1.97; 95%CI: 1.61, 2.42) and Sudurpashchim province (AOR: 1.64; 95%CI: 1.27, 2.10) compared to Koshi province and among women whose husband education was basic level (AOR:1.37; 95%CI: 1.15, 1.63), or secondary level (AOR: 1.32; 95%CI: 1.09, 1.60) education. CONCLUSION: Nepal faces relatively high unmet FP needs across various socio-demographic strata. Addressing these needs requires targeted interventions focusing on age, ethnicity, religion, education, and socio-economic factors to ensure universal access to FP services.

Essential newborn care practices in health facilities of Nepal: Evidence from Nepal Health Facility Survey 2015 and 2021.

Availability of newborn care practices in health facilities (HFs) plays an important role in improving the survival and well-being of newborns. In this paper, we aimed to assess practice of carrying out different newborn care practices among HFs between 2015 and 2021, and associated factors in Nepal. We analyzed data of 621 and 786 HFs offering delivery and newborn care services from Nepal Health Facility Surveys 2015 and 2021, respectively. We summarized categorical variables with a weighted percent and 95% confidence interval (CI). We estimated weighted unadjusted absolute difference in percentage of different newborn care practices between 2015 and 2021, and its 95% CI using binomial regression model. We applied univariable and multivariable logistic regression analysis to determine the factors associated with the availability of all seven newborn care practices. The percentage of HFs carrying out all seven newborn care practices was 50.5% (95% CI: 44.6, 56.3) in 2015 and 83.7% (95% CI: 79.8, 87.0) in 2021 with an overall difference of 33.3 percent points (95% CI: 26.4, 40.1). The proportion of HFs reporting all seven newborn care practices increased significantly between 2015 and 2021 in each all three ecological regions and in provinces except Madhesh and Gandaki. In 2021, private hospitals had lower odds of carrying out all seven newborn care practices compared to federal/provincial hospitals (AOR = 0.26, 95% CI: 0.11, 0.63). Similarly, in 2021, the odds of HFs carrying out all seven newborn care practices was 2.87 (95% CI: 1.06, 8.31) times higher in Sudurpashchim compared to Koshi province. In 2021, HFs carrying out seven newborn care practices did not differ significantly based on ecological belts, quality assurance activities, external supervision, delivery service-related training, and frequency of HF meetings. In conclusion, there has been significant improvement in proportion of facilities carrying out seven essential newborn care practices between 2015 and 2021. Type of facility and provinces were associated with the HFs carrying out seven newborn care practices in Nepal.

Factors associated with uptake of breast and cervical cancer screening among Nepalese women: Evidence from Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2022.

Breast cancer screening (BCS) and cervical cancer screening (CCS) are integral parts of initiatives to reduce the burden associated with these diseases. In this context, we aimed to determine factors associated with BCS and CCS uptake among Nepalese women aged 30 to 49 years using data from the Nepal Demographic Health Survey (NDHS) 2022. We performed a weighted analysis to account complex survey design of the NDHS 2022. We employed univariable and multivariable logistic regression to determine factors associated with the uptake of BCS and CCS and results were presented as crude odds ratio and adjusted odds ratio (AOR) along with 95% confidence interval (CI). The uptake of BCS and CCS among Nepalese women aged 30 to 49 years were 6.5% and 11.4% respectively. Women from Terai compared to mountain region (AOR = 0.54, 95%CI: 0.31, 0.93) and those engaged in agriculture compared to non-working (AOR = 0.59, 95%CI: 0.42, 0.82) women had lower odds of BCS uptake. Conversely, Dalit women compared to Brahmin/Chhetri (AOR = 2.08, 95%CI: 1.37, 3.16), and women with basic (AOR = 1.49, 95%CI: 1.04, 2.13), secondary (AOR = 1.96, 95%CI: 1.33, 2.88), and higher education (AOR = 2.80, 95% CI: 1.51, 5.19) compared to those with no education had higher odds of BCS uptake. Women from rural areas (AOR = 0.76, 95%CI: 0.61, 0.96), and those living in Bagmati (AOR = 2.16, 95% CI: 1.44, 3.23) and Gandaki (AOR = 2.09, 95%CI: 1.40, 3.14) provinces had higher odds of CCS uptake compared to their urban counterparts and those living in Koshi province, respectively. The odds of CCS increased with age (AOR = 1.06, 95%CI: 1.04, 1.08). Women with secondary education (AOR = 1.47, 95%CI: 1.06, 2.04) had higher odds of CCS uptake compared to those without education. Similarly, married women (AOR = 8.24, 95%CI: 1.03, 66.21), and those with health insurance (AOR = 1.41, 95%CI: 1.08, 1.83) had higher odds of CCS. In conclusion, the uptake of both BCS and CCS was relatively poor among Nepalese women indicating a need for targeted and tailored intervention to increase BCS and CCS uptake.

Association between media exposure and maternal health service use in Nepal: A further analysis of Nepal Demographic and Health Survey-2022.

BACKGROUND: Nepal has made incremental progress in improving coverage of maternal health services leading to improved health outcomes. Government and other health sector stakeholders have consistently considered dissemination of educational messages on maternal health through mass media. However, in Nepal's context, the media's influence on the uptake of maternal health services is less known. This study examines the links between media exposure and maternal health service use in Nepal. METHOD: Our analysis is based on the nationally representative Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) 2022 data. We analyzed data from 1933 women aged 15-49 who had given birth in the two years preceding the survey. Weight analysis was performed to account for complex survey design. We presented categorical variables as frequency, percentage, and corresponding 95% Confidence Interval (CI). Univariable and multivariable logistic regression assessed the association between media exposure and maternal health service use, and the results are presented as crude (COR) and adjusted odds ratios (AOR) along with 95% CI. RESULTS: Women exposed to internet use had 1.59 times [AOR = 1.59, 95% CI = 1.16, 2.19], and those exposed to radio and television health programs had 1.73 times [AOR = 1.73, 95% CI = 1.17, 2.56] higher odds of having four or more Antenatal Care (ANC) visits. Similarly, women exposed to mass media had 1.32 times [AOR = 1.32, 95% CI = 1.00, 1.74] and those exposed to health programs had 1.50 times [AOR = 1.50, 95% CI = 1.02, 2.21] higher odds of having an institutional delivery. However, mass media exposure, internet use, and health program exposure were not significantly associated with increased postnatal care of mother and newborn. CONCLUSION: Exposure to health programs and internet use are positively associated with four or more ANC visits. Exposure to mass media and health programs are positively associated with increased institutional delivery. Our findings imply that well-designed campaigns and awareness programs delivered through mass media platforms play a vital role in enhancing the uptake of maternal health services.

The burden of mental disorders in Nepal between 1990 and 2019: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019.

Mental disorders are the leading cause of disease burden, affecting 13% of all people globally in 2019. However, there is scarce evidence on the burden of mental disorders in Nepal. This study used the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 data to assess the prevalence and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) of mental disorders in Nepal between 1990 and 2019. In 2019, there were 3.9 million (95% UI: 3.6-4.3) people with mental disorders in Nepal. Major depressive disorders (1.1 million; 95% UI: 0.9-1.2 million) and anxiety disorders (0.9 million; 95% UI: 0.8-1.2 million) were the most prevalent mental disorders in 2019. Attention deficit hyperactive disorder, conduct disorder, and autism spectrum disorders were present twice as high in males than in females. The proportional contribution of mental disorders to the total disease burden has tripled between 1990 (1.79% of all DALYs) and 2019 (5.5% of all DALYs). In conclusion, the proportional contribution of mental disorders to total disease burden has increased significantly in the last three decades in Nepal, with apparent sex and age differentials in prevalence and DALY rates. Effective program and policy responses are required to prepare the health system for reducing the growing burden of mental health disorders in Nepal.

Service availability and readiness for basic emergency obstetric and newborn care: Analysis from Nepal Health Facility Survey 2021.

BACKGROUND: Although there has been a significant focus on improving maternal and newborn health and expanding services in Nepal, the expected positive impact on the health of mothers and newborns has not been achieved to the desired extent. Nepal not only needs to focus on improving access to and coverage of services but also the quality to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) by 2030. In this context, we aimed to analyze Basic Emergency Obstetric and Neonatal Care (BEmONC) service availability and readiness in Health Facilities (HFs) of Nepal. METHODS: We analyzed data from nationally representative Nepal Health Facility Survey (NHFS), 2021. BEmONC service availability and readiness in HFs was measured based on the "Service Availability and Readiness" manual of World Health Organization (WHO). We measured service availability by seven BEmONC signal functions. The readiness score was calculated for three domains- guidelines and staff training, essential equipment/supplies, and essential medicines on a scale of 100, and the average score for the three domains was the overall readiness score. We performed weighted descriptive and inferential analysis to account complex survey design of NHFS 2021. We summarized continuous variables with descriptive statistics like mean, standard deviation, median and interquartile range whereas categorical variables with percent and 95% confidence interval (CI). We applied simple, and multivariate linear regression to determine factors associated with the readiness of HFs for BEmONC services, and results were presented as beta (ß) coefficients and 95% CI. RESULTS: Of total 804 HFs offering normal vaginal delivery services, 3.1%, 89.2%, 7.7% were federal/provincial hospitals, local HFs, and private hospitals respectively. A total of 45.0% (95% CI: 34.9, 55.6) federal/provincial hospitals, 0.3% (95% CI: 0.2, 0.6), local HFs (district hospital, primary health care centers, health posts, urban health centers) and 10.5% (95% CI: 6.6, 16.4) private hospitals, had all seven BEmONC signal functions. The overall readiness of federal/provincial hospitals, local HFs, and private hospitals were 72.9±13.6, 54.2±12.8, 53.1±15.1 respectively. In multivariate linear regression, local HFs (ß = -12.64, 95% CI: -18.31, -6.96) and private hospitals had lower readiness score (ß = -18.08, 95% CI: -24.08, -12.08) compared to federal/provincial level hospitals. HFs in rural settings (ß = 2.60, 95% CI: 0.62, 4.58), mountain belts (ß = 4.18, 95% CI: 1.65, 6.71), and HFs with external supervision (ß = 2.99, 95% CI:1.08, 4.89), and quality assurance activities (ß = 3.59, 95% CI:1.64, 5.54) had better readiness scores. CONCLUSION: The availability of all seven BEmONC signal functions and readiness of HFs for BEmONC services are relatively low in local HFs and private hospitals. Accelerating capacity development through training centers at the federal/provincial level, onsite coaching, and mentoring, improving procurement and supply of medicines through federal/provincial logistic management centers, and regular supportive supervision could improve the BEmONC service availability and readiness in facilities across the country.

Readiness of health facilities to provide services related to non-communicable diseases in Nepal: evidence from nationally representative Nepal Health Facility Survey 2021.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the readiness of public and private health facilities (HFs) in delivering services related to non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in Nepal. METHODS: We analysed data from nationally representative Nepal Health Facility Survey 2021 to determine the readiness of HFs for cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), diabetes mellitus (DM), chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs) and mental health (MH)-related services using Service Availability and Readiness Assessment Manual of the WHO. Readiness score was measured as the average availability of tracer items in per cent, and HFs were considered 'ready' for NCDs management if they scored ≥70 (out of 100). We performed weighted univariate and multivariable logistic regression to determine the association of HFs readiness with province, type of HFs, ecological region, quality assurance activities, external supervision, client's opinion review and frequency of meetings in HFs. RESULTS: The overall mean readiness score of HFs offering CRDs, CVDs, DM and MH-related services was 32.6, 38.0, 38.4 and 24.0, respectively. Guidelines and staff training domain had the lowest readiness score, whereas essential equipment and supplies domain had the highest readiness score for each of the NCD-related services. A total of 2.3%, 3.8%, 3.6% and 3.3% HFs were ready to deliver CRDs, CVDs, DM and MH-related services, respectively. HFs managed by local level were less likely to be ready to provide all NCD-related services compared with federal/provincial hospitals. HFs with external supervision were more likely to be ready to provide CRDs and DM-related services and HFs reviewing client's opinions were more likely to be ready to provide CRDs, CVDs and DM-related services. CONCLUSION: Readiness of the HFs managed by local level to provide CVDs, DM, CRDs and MH-related services was relatively poor compared with federal/provincial hospitals. Prioritisation of policies to reduce the gaps in readiness and capacity strengthening of the local HFs is essential for improving their overall readiness to provide NCD-related services.

Burden of chronic kidney disease in Nepal: An analysis of the burden of disease from 1990 to 2019.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) has emerged as one of the major public health concerns. The increasing prevalence of its correlates such as obesity, diabetes, and hypertension has been, due in part responsible for the increased burden. However, very few studies have presented the comprehensive data on burden of disease particularly in developing countries like Nepal. In this study, we have performed an analysis on prevalence, mortality, years lived with disability (YLDs), years of life lost (YLLs) and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) attributable to CKD in Nepal using Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study 2019. The GBD 2019 study provides estimation of the prevalence, mortality rates, YLDs, YLLs and DALYs due to 369 different disease and 87 risk factors for 204 countries and territories across the world. In this study, we present Nepal specific data on prevalence, mortality, YLDs, YLLs and DALYs related to CKD. In 2019, there were 1,895,080 prevalent cases of CKD with 5,108 deaths, and a total of 168,900 DALYs were attributable to CKD. Age-standardized prevalence rate of CKD increased from 5,979.1 cases per 100,000 population (95% UI: 5539.7, 6400.4) in 1990 to 7,634.1 cases per 100,000 population (95% UI: 7138.8, 8119.4) in 2019 with higher prevalence in males. Similarly, the age-standardized mortality due to CKD increased for both sexes from 0.8 deaths per 100,000 population (95% UI: 0.6, 1.0) in 1990 to 2.6 deaths per 100,000 population (95% UI: 2.0, 3.3) in 2019. The burden of CKD as a percentage of total DALYs was 0.5% (95% UI: 0.4, 0.6) in 1990 and increased to 1.8% (95% UI: 1.4, 2.2%) in 2019. Kidney dysfunction, high systolic blood pressure, high fasting plasma glucose, high body mass index, low temperature, lead exposure, diet high in sodium, and high temperature were found to be the major risk factors for CKD. The study reveals that Nepal has a high and rising burden of CKD. Innovative strategies for prevention of CKD including health system preparedness for treatment services are required to respond to the rising burden of CKD.

Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases in Nepal from 1990 to 2019: The Global Burden of Disease Study, 2019.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) have emerged as the leading cause of deaths worldwide in 2019. Globally, more than three-quarters of the total deaths due to CVDs occur in low- and middle-income countries like Nepal. Although increasing number of studies is available on the prevalence of CVDs, there is limited evidence presenting a complete picture on the burden of CVDs in Nepal. In this context, this study aims to provide comprehensive picture on the burden of CVDs in the country. This study is based on the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study 2019, which is a multinational collaborative research covering 204 countries and territories across the world. The estimations made from the study are publicly available in the GBD Compare webpage operated by the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), University of Washington. This article makes use of those data available on the GBD Compare page of IHME website to present the comprehensive picture of the burden of CVDs in Nepal. Overall, in 2019, there were an estimated 1,214,607 cases, 46,501 deaths, and 1,104,474 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) due to CVDs in Nepal. The age-standardized mortality rates for CVDs witnessed a marginal reduction from 267.60 per 100,000 population in 1990 to 245.38 per 100,000 population in 2019. The proportion of deaths and DALYs attributable to CVDs increased from 9.77% to 24.04% and from 4.82% to 11.89%, respectively, between 1990 and 2019. Even though there are relatively stable rates of age-standardized prevalence, and mortality, the proportion of deaths and DALYs attributed to CVDs have risen sharply between 1990 and 2019. Besides implementing the preventive measures, the health system also needs to prepare itself for the delivery of long-term care of patients with CVDs which could have significant implications on resources and operations.

Burden of Diabetes Mellitus in Nepal: An Analysis of Global Burden of Disease Study 2019.

Globally, the number of people living with diabetes mellitus (DM) increased by 62% between 1990 and 2019, affecting 463 million people in 2019, and is projected to increase further by 51% by 2045. The increasing burden of DM that requires chronic care could have a considerable cost implication in the health system, particularly in resource constraint settings like Nepal. In this context, this study attempts to present the burden of DM in terms of prevalence, mortality, and disability adjusted life years (DALYs). The study is based on the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019, a multinational collaborative research, led by the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluations. In the study, the overall prevalence of DM was estimated using DisMod MR-2.1, a Bayesian metaregression model. DALYs were estimated summing years of life lost due to premature death and years lived with disability. There were a total of 1,412,180 prevalent cases of DM, 3,474 deaths and 189,727 DALYs, due to DM in 2019. All-age prevalence rate and the age-standardized prevalence rate of DM stood at 4,642.83 (95% uncertainty interval (UI): 4,178.58-5,137.74) and 5,735.58 (95% UI: 5,168.74-6327.73) cases per 100,000 population, respectively, in 2019. In 2019, 1.8% (95% UI: 1.54, 2.07) of total deaths were from DM, which is a more than three-fold increase from the proportion of deaths attributed in 1990 (0.43%, 95% UI: 0.36, 0.5) with most of these deaths being from DM type 2. In 2019, a total of 189,727 disability adjusted life years (DALYs) were attributable to DM of which 105,950 DALYs were among males, and the remaining 83,777 DALYs were among females. Overall, between 1990 and 2019, the DALYs, attributable to Type 1 and 2 DM combined and for Type 2 DM only, have increased gradually across both sexes. However, the DALYs per 100,000 attributable to DM have slightly reduced across both sexes in that time. There is a high burden of DM in Nepal in 2019 with a steep increase in the proportion of deaths attributable to DM in Nepal which could pose a serious challenge to the health system. Primary prevention of DM requires collaborative efforts from multiple sectors. Meanwhile, the current federal structure could be an opportunity for integrated, locally tailored public health and clinical interventions for the prevention of the disease and its consequences.

Risk Factors of Coronary Artery Disease: A Hospital-Based Study.

BACKGROUND: Coronary artery disease is among the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. There are limited scientific evidence on the risk factors for coronary artery disease specific to the Nepalese context. This study aimed to determine the association of various modifiable cardiovascular risk factors with coronary artery disease in Nepal. METHODS: It is a hospital-based case-control study conducted among 300 participants. Case group comprised of 150 newly diagnosed coronary artery disease patients attending Manmohan Cardiothoracic Vascular and Transplant Centre while the Age and sex matched non-cardiac patients (n=150) from the outpatient department of the Department of General Practice and Emergency Medicine of Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital were recruited as controls. Adjusted odds ratios (AOR) were calculated using multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: Of the 300 participants, 208 (69.3%) were males and 92 (30.7%) were females. The mean age was 59.8 years ± 11 years (standard deviation). In multivariable analysis, current smoking (AOR=3.05, 95% CI: 1.61-5.78), hypertension (AOR=1.82, 95% CI: 1.08-3.09), diabetes (AOR=3.78, 95% CI: 1.91-7.47), family history of coronary artery disease (AOR=2.92, 95% CI: 1.27-6.71), and low high density lipoprotein (AOR= 2.0, 95% CI: 1.17-3.42) were significantly associated with coronary artery disease. Current alcohol use (AOR=0.51, 95% CI: 0.29-0.89) was identified as a protective factor for coronary artery disease. CONCLUSIONS: Among the modifiable cardiovascular risk factors, smoking, hypertension, diabetes, and low level of high density lipoprotein were significantly associated with coronary artery disease, which should be considered while developing public health interventions for cardiovascular disease prevention in Nepal in future.

High Suicide Rates among Nepalese Population: Need for Action.

Suicide is a global public health problem and the burden has remained stable for last decades. The age standardized suicide rate was 9.77 per 100,000 in 2019 with males and older population being more affected. Based on age, the highest suicide rate was observed in individuals of age 80 years with suicide rate of 64.9 per 100,000 in male, 18.2 per 100,000 in female and 37.4 per 100,000 in both sexes in this age group. In all age group, the suicide rates are higher among males compared to females. Universal, selective and indicative preventive strategies should be implemented to reduce the burden of suicide in Nepal. Keywords: Nepal; prevention; suicide.

Barriers, Enablers and Strategies for the Treatment and Control of Hypertension in Nepal: A Systematic Review.

Background: Understanding country-specific factors influencing hypertension care is critical to address the gaps in the management of hypertension. However, no systematic investigation of factors influencing hypertension treatment and control in Nepal is available. This study aimed to systematically review the published literature and synthesise the findings on barriers, enablers, and strategies for hypertension treatment and control in Nepal. Methods: Embase, PubMed, Web of Science, CINAHL, ProQuest and WorldCat, and Nepali journals and government websites were searched for qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods studies on factors or strategies related to hypertension treatment and control in Nepal. Information from qualitative studies was analysed using template analysis, while results from quantitative studies were narratively synthesised. Summary findings were framed under "health system", "provider", and "patient" domains. The protocol was registered in PROSPERO (registration number: CRD42020145823). Results: We identified 15 studies; ten related to barriers and enablers and five to strategies. The identified barriers associated with the health system were: lack of affordable services and lack of resources. The barriers at the provider's level were: communication gaps, inadequate counselling, long waiting hours for appointments, lack of national guidelines for hypertension treatment, and provider's unsupportive behaviours. Non-adherence to medication, irregular follow-up visits, lack of awareness on blood pressure target, poor help-seeking behaviours, reluctance to change behaviours, perceived side-effects of anti-hypertensive medication, self-medication, lack of family support, financial hardship, lack of awareness on blood pressure complications, and comorbidity were barriers identified at patient level. The following enablers were identified: free essential health care services, family support, positive illness perception, and drug reminders. Strategies implemented at the health system, provider and patient levels were: establishing digital health records at health centres, health worker's capacity development, and health education. Conclusion: There is a range of barriers for hypertension treatment and control in Nepal pertaining to the health system, health providers, and patients. Comprehensive interventions are needed at all three levels to further improve management and control of hypertension in Nepal.

Prevalence, pattern and determinants of chronic disease multimorbidity in Nepal: secondary analysis of a national survey.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the prevalence, pattern and determinants of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) multimorbidity in Nepal. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of the data from the NCD survey 2018, which was conducted between 2016 and 2018. SETTING: The data belong to the nationally representative survey, that selected the study samples from throughout Nepal using multistage cluster sampling. PARTICIPANTS: 8931 participants aged 20 years and older were included in the study. PRIMARY OUTCOMES: NCD multimorbidity (occurrence of two or more chronic conditions including hypertension, diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, chronic kidney disease, coronary artery disease and cancer). Descriptive statistics, prevalence ratio and odds ratio were computed to assess pattern and determinants of multimorbidity. RESULTS: Mean (SD) age was 46.7 years (14.9 years). The majority of the participants were women (57.8%), without formal education (53.4%) and from urban areas (51.5%). Multimorbidity was present in 13.96% (95% CI: 12.9% to 15.1%). Hypertension and diabetes coexisted in 5.7%. Age, alcohol consumption, body mass index, non-high-density lipoprotein (non-HDL) level and rural-urban setting were significantly associated with multimorbidity. CONCLUSION: Multimorbidity was prevalent in particular groups or geographical areas in Nepal suggesting a need for coordinated and integrated NCD care approach for the management of multiplicative co-comorbid conditions.

Prevalence of non-communicable diseases risk factors and their determinants: Results from STEPS survey 2019, Nepal.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends ongoing surveillance of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and their risk factors, using the WHO STEPwise approach to surveillance (STEPS). The aim of this study was to assess the distribution and determinants of NCD risk factors in Nepal, a low-income country, in which two-thirds (66%) of annual deaths are attributable to NCDs. METHODS: A nationally representative NCD risk factors STEPS survey (instrument version 3.2), was conducted between February and May 2019, among 6,475 eligible participants of age 15-69 years sampled from all 7 provinces through multistage sampling process. Data collection involved assessment of behavioral and biochemical risk factors. Complex survey analysis was completed in STATA 15, along with Poisson regression modelling to examine associations between covariates and risk factor prevalence. RESULTS: The most prevalent risk factor was consumption of less than five servings of fruit and vegetables a day (97%; 95% CI: 94.3-98.0). Out of total participants, 17% (95% CI: 15.1-19.1) were current smoker, 6.8% (95% CI: 5.3-8.2) were consuming ≥60g/month alcohol per month and 7.4% (95% CI:5.7-10.1) were having low level of physical activity. Approximately, 24.3% (95% CI: 21.6-27.2) were overweight or obese (BMI≥25kg/m2) while 24.5% (95% CI: 22.4-26.7) and 5.8% (95% CI: 4.3-7.3) had raised blood pressure (BP) and raised blood glucose respectively. Similarly, the prevalence of raised total cholesterol was 11% (95% CI: 9.6-12.6). Sex and education level of participants were statistically associated with smoking, harmful alcohol use and raised BP. Participants of age 30-44 years and 45-69 years were found to have increased risk of overweight, raised BP, raised blood sugar and raised blood cholesterol. Similarly, participants in richest wealth quintile had higher odds of insufficient physical inactivity, overweight and raised blood cholesterol. On average, each participant had 2 NCD related risk factors (2.04, 95% CI: 2.02-2.08). CONCLUSION: A large portion of the Nepalese population are living with a variety of NCD risk factors. These surveillance data should be used to support and monitor province specific NCD prevention and control interventions throughout Nepal, supported by a multi-sectoral national coordination mechanism.

Progress in Reducing Inequalities in Reproductive, Maternal, Newborn and Child Health Services in Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Equity has emerged as a cross-cutting theme in the health sector, and countries across the world are striving to ensure that all people have access to the health services they need without undue financial hardship and educational, social, cultural and geographical barriers. In this context, this analysis has attempted to analyse Nepal's progress in reducing inequalities in reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health services based on economic status and place of residence. METHODS: In this analysis, we have used data available from the web version of the Health Equity Assessment Toolkit, a data visualisation tool developed by the World Health Organisation. We have analysed the inequalities in terms of a composite coverage index which combines eight reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health interventions along the continuum of care. RESULTS: Composite coverage of reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health services was 43% in 2001 which increased to 65% in 2016. The absolute difference in composite coverage of the services between the lowest and highest wealth quintiles decreased from 28-percentage points in 2001 to 8-percentage points in 2016. The difference in service coverage between the urban and rural settings reduced from 21-percentage points to six percentage points in the period. Among the eight various services, births attended by skilled birth attendants is the indicator with the highest scope for improvement.   Conclusions: Inequalities based on wealth quintiles and residence places have narrowed from 2001 to 2016. Additional efforts in expanding skilled birth attendants and antenatal care service coverage among the poorest quintile and rural residents could further improve the coverage of the indicators at the national level and narrow down the inequalities.

Trends in the Prevalence, Awareness, Treatment, and Control of Hypertension in Nepal between 2000 and 2025: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the burden and trend of hypertension and the associated care cascade can provide direction to the development of interventions preventing and controlling hypertension. This study aimed to assess prevalence and trends of hypertension and its awareness, treatment, and control in Nepal. METHODS: We systematically searched CINAHL, Embase, ProQuest, PubMed, Web of Science, WorldCat, and government and health agency-owned websites to identify studies reporting prevalence of hypertension, awareness, treatment, and control in Nepal between 2000 and 2020. We applied the random-effects model to compute the pooled prevalence in the overall population and among subgroups in each 5-year interval period between 2000 and 2020. We used linear meta-regression analysis to predict hypertension from 2000 to 2025. RESULTS: We identified 23 studies having a total of 84,006 participants. The pooled prevalence of hypertension, awareness, treatment, and control for 2016-2020 was 32% (95% CI: 23-40%), 50% (95% CI: 30-69%), 27% (95% CI: 19-34%), and 38% (95% CI: 28-48%), respectively. The prevalence of hypertension varied by age, gender, education, and geographical area. Hypertension increased by 6 percentage points (pp), awareness increased by 12 pp, treatment increased by 11 pp, and control increased by 3 pp over the 20 years studied. Since 2000, the rate of increment of hypertension has been 3.5 pp per decade, where 44.7% of men are expected to suffer from hypertension by 2025. CONCLUSION: The markedly increased prevalence of hypertension and relatively poor progress in hypertension awareness, treatment, and control in Nepal suggest that there is a need for hypertension preventive approaches as well as strategies to optimize hypertension care cascade.

Factors associated with physical and sexual violence among school-going adolescents in Nepal: Findings from Global School-based Student Health Survey.

BACKGROUND: Globally violence is a matter of public health concern with severe physical and mental health implications and social consequences. Evidence suggest that adolescents have an elevated risk of exposure to physical and sexual violence. However, there is a lack of nationally representative research on violence and its associated factors in Nepal to inform interventions. This paper attempts to find the factors associated with various forms of physical and sexual violence among school-going adolescents in Nepal. METHODS: We analysed the cross-sectional data from the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) 2015. The GSHS survey applied a two-stage cluster sampling process to select a representative sample of 7 to 11 grade students from 74 schools across the country. We applied logistic regression analysis to identify the factors associated with physical and sexual violence. RESULTS: Out of the total 6,529 participants, 45.24% of them faced a physical attack, 39.25% were involved in a physical fight, and 11.65% were victims of sexual violence in the survey administered between 7 August 2015 to 14 March 2016. In a multiple regression analysis, the age of participants, parental supervision, feeling unsafe at school, and the number of close friends were found to be associated with a physical attack. Participants who were bullied, had multiple sex partners, and had received corporal punishment in school had a higher engagement in a physical fight. Likewise, school grade, having parents who understand the problems, having multiple sex partners, and corporal punishment at school were associated with instances of sexual violence. CONCLUSION: The study identified multiple factors associated with experiences of physical attacks, involvement in a physical fight, and sexual violence among school-going adolescents. This study results can have important implications for school administration, parents, and policymakers alike to plan appropriate anti-violence strategies and interventions. Since various forms of violence share some common risk factors, a comprehensive strategy could be worth considering to prevent such acts of violence.