A regional comparison of children's blood cadmium, lead, and mercury in rural, urban and industrial areas of six European countries, and China, Ecuador, and Morocco.

OBJECTIVES: The authors aimed to evaluate whether blood cadmium (B-Cd), lead (B-Pb) and mercury (B-Hg) in children differ regionally in 9 countries, and to identify factors correlating with exposure. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The authors performed a cross-sectional study of children aged 7-14 years, living in 2007-2008 in urban, rural, or potentially polluted ("hot spot") areas (ca. 50 children from each area, in total 1363 children) in 6 European and 3 non-European countries. The authors analyzed Cd, Pb, and total Hg in blood and collected information on potential determinants of exposure through questionnaires. Regional differences in exposure levels were assessed within each country. RESULTS: Children living near industrial "hot-spots" had B-Cd 1.6 (95% CI: 1.4-1.9) times higher in the Czech Republic and 2.1 (95% CI:1.6-2.8) times higher in Poland, as compared to urban children in the same countries (geometric means [GM]: 0.13 µg/l and 0.15 µg/l, respectively). Correspondingly, B-Pb in the "hot spot" areas was 1.8 (95% CI: 1.6-2.1) times higher than in urban areas in Slovakia and 2.3 (95% CI: 1.9-2.7) times higher in Poland (urban GM: 19.4 µg/l and 16.3 µg/l, respectively). In China and Morocco, rural children had significantly lower B-Pb than urban ones (urban GM: 64 µg/l and 71 µg/l, respectively), suggesting urban exposure from leaded petrol, water pipes and/or coal-burning. Hg "hot spot" areas in China had B-Hg 3.1 (95% CI: 2.7-3.5) times higher, and Ecuador 1.5 (95% CI: 1.2-1.9) times higher, as compared to urban areas (urban GM: 2.45 µg/l and 3.23 µg/l, respectively). Besides industrial exposure, traffic correlated with B-Cd; male sex, environmental tobacco smoke, and offal consumption with B-Pb; and fish consumption and amalgam fillings with B-Hg. However, these correlations could only marginally explain regional differences. CONCLUSIONS: These mainly European results indicate that some children experience about doubled exposures to toxic elements just because of where they live. These exposures are unsafe, identifiable, and preventable and therefore call for preventive actions. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2023;36(3):349-64.

Association Between Serum Selenium Concentration and OPG/RANKL/RANK Axis in Patients with Arterial Hypertension.

The aim of the study was to determine the relationship between the serum selenium concentration (Se-S) and the blood concentrations of osteoprotegerin (OPG), receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-Β ligand (RANKL) and the OPG/RANKL ratio in patients with arterial hypertension. The study group comprised 138 patients with arterial hypertension (age: 56.04 ± 11.59 years). Se-S was determined in all the subjects. Based on the Se-S, the following subgroups were distinguished: a subgroup of patients with a lower Se-S ("low-Se", Se-S < median) and a subgroup of patients with a higher Se-S ("high-Se", Se-S ≥ median). Moreover, the blood concentrations of the parameters of bone metabolism and extraskeletal calcification were assessed: OPG and RANKL. The OPG/RANKL ratio was calculated. In the "low-Se" subgroup, the RANKL concentration was statistically significantly lower, and the OPG/RANKL ratio was statistically significantly higher than in the patients in the "high-Se" subgroup. The correlation analysis showed the negative linear relationships between Se-S and OPG (r = - 0.25, p < 0.05) and between Se-S and OPG/RANKL (r = - 0.47, p < 0.05). Moreover, Se-S positively correlated with RANKL (r = 0.33, p < 0.05). In regression analysis, higher body mass index (BMI), smoking and lower Se-S were independently associated with a higher OPG/RANKL ratio, while lower BMI, use of diuretics, ß-blockers and ACE inhibitors and lower OPG/RANKL ratio with effective blood pressure control. In summary, in the group of patients with arterial hypertension, lower Se-S is associated with an unfavourable prognostic panel of parameters of bone metabolism and extraskeletal calcification. Lower Se-S is an independent risk factor for a higher OPG/RANKL ratio, which is an independent prediction factor of ineffective blood pressure control in patients with hypertension.

Serum Zinc and Selenium Concentrations in Patients with Hypertrophy and Remodelling of the Left Ventricle Secondary to Arterial Hypertension.

The aim of the study was to assess the relationship between serum selenium and zinc concentrations (Se-S and Zn-S) and the left ventricle geometry in patients suffering from arterial hypertension. A total of 78 people with arterial hypertension (mean age: 53.72 ± 12.74 years) participated in the study. Se-S and Zn-S were determined in all patients. The type of left ventricular remodelling and hypertrophy was determined by the left ventricular mass index (LVMI) and relative wall thickness (RWT) measured by echocardiography. Se-S and Zn-S in the whole group were 89.84 ± 18.75 µg/L and 0.86 ± 0.13 mg/L. Normal left ventricular geometry was found in 28.2% of patients; left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) in 71.8%, including concentric remodelling in 28.2%, concentric hypertrophy in 29.5%, and eccentric hypertrophy in 14.1%. LVH was statistically significantly more frequent in patients with Se-S < median compared to patients with Se-S ≥ median (87.2% vs. 56.4%, p < 0.05), as well as in patients with Zn-S < median compared to patients with Zn-S ≥ median (83.8% vs. 60.9%, p < 0.05). In hypertensive patients, older age, higher LDL cholesterol, higher fasting glucose, lower Se-S, and lower Zn-S were independently associated with LVH. In conclusion, in hypertensive patients, left ventricular hypertrophy may be associated with low levels of selenium and zinc in the serum.

The Total Antioxidant Status, Serum Selenium Concentrations and the Ultrasound Assessment Carotid Intima Media Thickness in Patients with Arterial Hypertension.

The objective of the study was to establish the correlation between serum selenium concentrations, total antioxidant status, and the carotid intima media thickness in ultrasound assessment in patients with arterial hypertension. A group of 76 people suffering from arterial hypertension was qualified to participate in the study. The mean age of the respondents was 53.48 ± 12.78. Serum selenium concentrations (Se-S) and total antioxidant status (TAS) were determined in all respondents. Se-S were determined by hydride generation atomic absorption spectroscopy (HGAAS). The antioxidant status was assessed by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In addition, an ultrasound exam of the carotid arteries was performed, and the intima media thickness (cIMT) was measured. In the study group, Se-S and TAS were 89.73 ± 18.99 µg/L and 1.18 ± 0.35 mM. However, the cIMT measured using ultrasound was 0.68 ± 0.15 mm. cIMT was significantly greater in patients with arterial hypertension with Se-S < median in comparison to patients with arterial hypertension with Se-S ≥ median (0.73 ± 0.19 mm vs. 0.65 ± 0.10 mm, p < 0.05), as well as in patients with arterial hypertension with TAS < median than in patients with arterial hypertension with TAS ≥ median (0.79 ± 0.18 mm vs. 0.56 ± 0.13 mm, p < 0.05). In regression analysis, older age, higher BMI, smoking, and lower serum selenium concentrations were independently correlated with the greater cIMT. Higher BMI and smoking were independent risk factors for the lower TAS, and the use of ACE inhibitors, ß-blockers, and higher Se-S were independent factors of protection against the lower TAS. In patients with arterial hypertension, the lower total antioxidant status due to lower serum selenium concentrations may be correlated with an increase of the carotid intima media thickness measured using ultrasound.

Metal Concentration Assessment in the Urine of Cigarette Smokers Who Switched to Electronic Cigarettes: A Pilot Study.

Background: E-cigarettes (ECs) seem to be a less harmful alternative for conventional cigarettes, however, very little is still known about the exposure to some elements, which are the components of this device and may contaminate the nicotine liquid. The aim of this study is to assess whether e-cigarette users are more exposed to 12 elements detected in aerosol than non-smokers and conventional cigarette smokers, using their concentrations in urine as exposure biomarkers. Methods: A cross-sectional, group-based survey was carried out using 90 volunteers classified into groups of non-smokers, EC-only users, dual EC users-cigarette smokers and cigarette-only smokers. Using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry (ETAAS), Cr, Ni, Co, Ag, In, Mn, Ba, Sr, V, Sb, Cd and Pb levels were measured in spot urine samples. Among the selected groups, a comparison was made using the analysis of covariance and correlations with EC usage pattern were assessed by multiple linear regression. Results: Element concentrations in urine of EC-users were not significantly different from the levels found in non-smokers and smokers. Only in the case of Ba, Ni and Sb was a significant correlation found in relation to some e-cigarette usage patterns. Conclusion: Transfer of the investigated elements to the EC aerosol was not found to be a substantial source of exposure in EC users who quitted smoking.

Total antioxidant status reduction conditioned by a serum selenium concentration decrease as a mechanism of the ultrasonographically measured brachial artery dilatation impairment in patients with arterial hypertension.

The objective of the study was to determine the relationship between serum concentrations of selenium (SeS) and zinc (ZnS), total antioxidant status (TAS) and endothelial function assessed by ultrasonographic method of dilatation of the brachial artery in 141 hypertensive patients. Patients with SeS < median were characterized by a statistically significantly lower flow-mediated dilation (FMD) than patients with SeS ≥ median. Patients with TAS < median were characterized by a significantly lower FMD than patients with TAS ≥ median. Older age, higher BMI, male gender, higher blood total cholesterol, ischemic heart disease, smoking and lower SeS constitute independent predictors of inferior endothelial function, expressed in lower FMD values. Smoking is an independent predictor of lower TAS, and the use of ß-blockers and higher serum selenium levels are independent predictors of higher TAS. In summary, a decrease in TAS should be considered as a mechanism of inferior endothelial function in hypertensive patients conditioned by a decrease in SeS.

Influence of physical training on markers of bone turnover, mechanical properties, morphological alterations, density and mineral contents in the femur of rats exposed to cadmium and/or alcohol.

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of physical training on bone parameters of rats exposed to alcohol (Al) and/or cadmium (Cd). Young female rats were divided into one control group and six groups exposed to Cd and/or Al. Al (36% calories of diet) and Cd (20 mg Cd/kg feed) were administered with liquid diet. Half of the rats from the treated groups were subjected to treadmill training (20 m/min for 0.5 h, 4 days a week). The experiment was carried out for 5 months. Al decreased the concentration of calcium (Ca) and iron (Fe) in the femur, whereas Cd and Cd + Al intake reduced the contents of Ca, Fe and zinc. Al and/or Cd caused an increase in both C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX1; bone resorption marker) and osteocalcin (OC; formation indicator) and enhanced the degree of porosity and flexural strength of the femur. Al partially prevented the loss of Fe from the bone caused by Cd, but intensified the inhibition of growth of body weight in comparison with separate exposure to Cd. In rats co-exposed to Cd + Al, the levels of CTX1 were greater compared with those treated with Al or Cd separately, and the density was less than that in rats exposed to Al separately. The training caused increases of magnesium and Ca contents, decreases in CTX1, as well as increases in OC and bone density, decreasing their porosity. The effect of training on the bone status, however, was limited (especially in rats co-exposed to Cd and Al) because of the increase in their mineralization, stimulated by exercises, was insufficient in relation to collagen production intensity. In conclusion, training had favourable effects on some bone parameters, but did not compensate for the negative effects of Al and/or Cd exposure on the poor mineralization and histopathological and morphological changes in the femur.

Old and New Threats-Trace Metals and Fluoride Contamination in Soils at Defunct Smithy Sites.

The aim of this study was to investigate soil contamination with trace elements and fluoride at sites in Szczecin (NW Poland) where economic activity was historically associated with the use of trace metals. As the Polish legislation does not recognize the lasting impact of historical pollution on soils, land developers are not obliged to determine soil pollution in the new residential areas, including parks and playgrounds for children. Therefore, in this study, at the locations of defunct metalwork enterprises (smithies, foundries, chemical plants, and small metal production plants), which were closed down after World War II, we determined lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), and cobalt (Co) levels in the soil. In addition, we also determined fluoride (F) levels due to the contemporary fluoride pollution in the area generated by a large chemical plant with a post-production phosphogypsum waste landfill and a power plant complex. Our results show that soil at the sites of now-defunct smithies can still act as a significant source of trace metals. Pb concentration in the surface (0⁻20 cm) and subsurface (20⁻40 cm) layers exceeded concentration thresholds for soils with first-degree pollution. The concentrations of Zn and Cu also exceeded their natural background limits. Furthermore, our research indicates an increased concentration of fluoride in surface layers of the soil; however, not exceeding the fluoride content threshold. These observations have important consequences for public health and safety because, presently, the studied sites function as housing estates and other public facilities. Therefore, contaminated soil at these sites may pose a threat to the health of local residents and should be closely monitored for trace metal contamination levels.

Exposure to Cadmium and Lead in Cigarette Smokers Who Switched to Electronic Cigarettes.

INTRODUCTION: Electronic cigarettes (ECs) seem to be a less harmful alternative for conventional cigarettes. This study aimed to assess whether the generated aerosols from ECs contain lower amount of cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) than cigarette smoke and to detect any changes in exposure to Cd and Pb among cigarette smokers who switched completely or partially to EC. METHODS: EC aerosols and cigarette smoke were generated, and the determination of Cd and Pb in trapped samples and e-liquids was performed by the electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry method. A cross-sectional, group-based survey was carried out using 156 volunteers classified into groups of nonsmokers, EC-only users, dual EC users-cigarette smokers, and cigarette-only smokers. Using electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry, blood Cd and Pb levels were measured, and the results were compared by analysis of covariance. RESULTS: Transfer of Cd and Pb to EC aerosol was found to be minimal, although the metals were present in the remaining e-liquid from tanks used for vapor generation. The geometric mean blood Cd concentration adjusted for age and sex was 0.44 (95% confidence interval = 0.37 to 0.52) µg/L in the EC-only users, which was significantly lower than those in the smokers of 1.44 (1.16 to 1.78) and dual users of 1.38 (1.11 to 1.72). The blood Pb geometric mean differed significantly only between nonsmokers of 11.9 (10.6 to 13.3) and smokers of 15.9 (13.6 to 18.6). CONCLUSION: The study revealed that smokers who completely switched to ECs and quit smoking conventional cigarettes may significantly reduce their exposure to Cd and probably Pb. IMPLICATIONS: Switching to EC use is associated with a rapid and substantial decrease in the exposure to carcinogenic Cd. Exposure to Pb is probably also decreased but may be overshadowed by other factors. The study provides empirical data based not only on the analysis of generated aerosol but also on biological indicators of recent exposure-that is, the concentrations of Cd and Pb in blood, indicating EC as a potential harm-reduction device, especially regarding Cd exposure. However, in this case, dual EC use-cigarette smoking provides doubtful benefits.

Calcium, magnesium, zinc and lead concentrations in the structures forming knee joint in patients with osteoarthritis‬.

The aim of the study was to investigate the relationships between the concentrations of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), and lead (Pb) in cartilage, anterior cruciate ligament, and meniscus samples obtained following knee joint surgery in patients with osteoarthritis in northwestern Poland.‬ Furthermore, we examined the relationships between the concentrations of these metals in the studied parts of the knee joint and the influences of gender, age, BMI and hypertension. We found significantly higher concentrations of Ca, Mg, and Zn in the cartilage of men than in women and a significantly higher Pb concentration in the meniscus of the men. We also found a higher concentration of Pb in the cartilage of patients over 65 years of age.‬ There were no differences in the concentrations of the studied metals between patients with and without hypertension.‬ There was no relationship between Ca, Mg, Zn, and Pb levels in analyzed materials and BMI. Furthermore, we noted some new interactions between metals in the studied structures of the knee joint. The results reported in the study shows the influence of age, gender and BMI on the Ca, Mg, Zn and Pb in the studied structures of the knee joint.

Influence of Pb and Cd levels in whole blood of postmenopausal women on the incidence of anxiety and depressive symptoms.

INTRODUCTION: To-date, the influence of heavy metals such as Pb or Cd on mental functioning, and especially on the occurrence of depressive and anxiety-related disorders, has not been well understood. OBJECTIVES: 1) Assessment of Pb and Cd levels in whole blood of postmenopausal women. 2) Assessment of the severity of anxiety and depressive symptoms depending on Pb and Cd levels in whole blood of postmenopausal women. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The survey-based study involved 198 healthy postmenopausal women from West Pomeranian province in Poland. It was performed using the Primary Care Evaluation of Mental Disorders (PRIME-MD), Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI), and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). The second part of the study was based on biochemical analysis of the levels of heavy metals (Pb, Cd). RESULTS: The mean level of Pb was 19.85 ± 8.99 µg/l and Cd 0.87±0.98 µg/l; these levels were within normal ranges. Analysis of the mean levels of Pb and Cd in whole blood of postmenopausal women in relation to the severity of depressive symptoms did not reveal statistically significant differences. Correlation analysis demonstrated a statistically significant (p<0.05) negative correlation (-0.22) between the level of Pb and the severity of anxiety as a state. Correlations between the levels of Pb and Cd and the severity of anxiety as a trait were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: The mean Pb and Cd levels in whole blood of healthy postmenopausal women did not exceed acceptable limits. The study did not confirm a relationship between the levels of selected heavy metals and the severity of anxiety and depressive symptoms in healthy women. However, there was a relationship between the level of Pb and the severity of anxiety as a state.

Platinum, palladium, rhodium, molybdenum and strontium in blood of urban women in nine countries.

BACKGROUND: There is little reliable information on human exposure to the metals platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd) and rhodium (Rh), despite their use in enormous quantities in catalytic converters for automobile exhaust systems. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate blood concentrations of Pt (B-Pt), Pd (B-Pd) and Rh (B-Rh) in women from six European and three non-European countries, and to identify potentially influential factors. In addition, molybdenum (Mo) and strontium (Sr) were analysed. METHODS: Blood from 248 women aged 47-61 was analysed by high resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry under strict quality control. RESULTS: The medians were: B-Pt 0.8 (range <0.6-5.2), B-Pd <5 (<5-9.3), B-Rh <0.4 (<0.4-3.6)ng/L and B-Mo 2.0 (0.2-16) and B-Sr 16.6 (3.5-49) µg/L. Two women with highly elevated B-Pt (242 and 60ng/L), previously cancer treated with cis-platinum, were not included in the data analysis. All elements varied geographically (2-3 times) (B-Pd P=0.05; all other elements P<0.001); variations within each area were generally 5-10 times. Traffic was not associated with increased concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: General population blood concentrations of Pt, Pd and Rh are within or below the single digit ng/L range, much lower than in most previous reports. This is probably due to improved analytical performance, allowing for more reliable information at ultra-trace levels. In general, Mo and Sr agreed with previously reported concentrations. All elements showed geographical and inter-individual variations, but no convincing relationships with self-reported traffic intensity were found. Pt from the antineoplastic drug cis-platinum is retained in the body for years.

Effect of occupational exposure to lead on new risk factors for cardiovascular diseases.

OBJECTIVE: The cardiovascular effects of lead are caused primarily through an effect on blood pressure but are not just limited to an increased risk of hypertension. The aim of our study was to determine to what extent chronic exposure to lead affects new risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) development, such as biomarkers of inflammation (C reactive protein (CRP) and fibrinogen) and biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction (homocysteine, asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) and L-homoarginine). METHODS: A cross-sectional study was performed on a sample of 231 male volunteers, aged 20-60 years, working for at least 2 years in jobs with exposure to lead during the mining and processing of lead-zinc ores. The association between lead in blood and CVD biomarkers was evaluated using multiple linear regression, and the effects of exposure level were observed in workers divided into subgroups according to their blood lead concentration: <250, 250-400 and >400 µg/L. RESULTS: Lead in the blood correlated with new risk factors for CVD except for ADMA. Multiple regression analysis revealed that predictive properties for lead in the blood increased for particular biomarkers in the following order: L-homoarginine, fibrinogen, CRP and homocysteine. Among the specified groups, significant differences were observed only between the groups with the most and least exposure to lead, which differed in concentrations by 54.3% for CRP, 19.3% for fibrinogen, 10.6% for homocysteine and -25.5% for L-homoarginine. CONCLUSIONS: These findings support the hypothesis that occupational exposure to lead can promote atherosclerosis, particularly in highly exposed individuals.

Cadmium Concentration in Mother's Blood, Milk, and Newborn's Blood and Its Correlation with Fatty Acids, Anthropometric Characteristics, and Mother's Smoking Status.

The aim of this study was to determine cadmium concentration in mothers' blood, milk, and newborns' blood from Szczecin (Poland) as a result of environmental cadmium exposure and evaluate the correlation (1) between cadmium levels in analyzed matrices, (2) between cadmium and fatty acids in those matrices, and (3) between cadmium and some selected personal variables, such as anthropometric characteristics, mothers' smoking status, and fruit and fish consumption by mothers. The concentration of cadmium in whole blood and milk of mothers and in the umbilical cord blood of newborns was determined by atomic absorption spectrometry with graphite furnace atomization and Zeeman correction. The fatty acid concentrations were determined by gas chromatography in our previous study. The mean concentrations of cadmium in maternal blood, newborn's blood, and breast milk were 0.61 ± 0.62 µg/L, 0.05 ± 0.04 µg/L, and 0.11 ± 0.07 µg/L, respectively, and differed significantly between analyzed matrices. Cadmium concentrations in the umbilical cord blood were 15 % (range 0-83 %) of the concentration in maternal blood, whereas cadmium concentrations in breast milk constituted 35 % (range 3-142 %) of the concentration in mothers' blood. No correlation was found between cadmium levels in three analyzed matrices. The correlation analysis revealed significant low positive correlation between maternal blood cadmium concentrations and concentrations of elaidic, oleic, and cis-vaccenic acids in mothers' milk (correlation coefficients 0.30, 0.32, and 0.31, respectively). Mothers' blood cadmium correlated with mothers' age (r = -0.26, p = 0.03), maternal smoking before pregnancy (r = 0.55, p < 0.000), maternal smoking during pregnancy (r = 0.58, p < 0.000), and fruit consumption by mothers after delivery (r = -0.44, p = 0.003). Mothers' height was the only variable that correlated significantly with breast milk cadmium levels. Newborns' blood cadmium concentrations correlated significantly with mothers' height (r = 0.28, p = 0.02), newborns' birth weight (r = 0.26, p = 0.03), maternal smoking during pregnancy (r = 0.24, p = 0.048), and fish consumption by mothers after delivery (r = 0.37, p = 0.02). The concentrations of cadmium in Polish mother-newborn pairs are among the lowest in Europe and within the norms established by different institutions. The results of our study confirm the existence of effective partial barriers (such as the placenta and mammary gland) restricting cadmium passage from mother to newborn. The significant positive correlations between maternal blood Cd and concentrations of oleic, elaidic, and cis-vaccenic acids in breast milk might suggest the increased cadmium toxicity to infant, taking into consideration even low cadmium passage to milk. Maternal smoking during pregnancy increases both maternal and newborn's blood cadmium level. Promotion of nonsmoking among pregnant women could substantially reduce prenatal and neonatal exposure to cadmium. Moreover, the results of our study point to the need of establishing complex biomonitoring of cadmium in mother-infant pairs in order to better protect children from this toxic and carcinogenic metal exposure.

Cherry-flavoured electronic cigarettes expose users to the inhalation irritant, benzaldehyde.

Many non-cigarette tobacco products, including e-cigarettes, contain various flavourings, such as fruit flavours. Although many flavourings used in e-cigarettes are generally recognised as safe when used in food products, concerns have been raised about the potential inhalation toxicity of these chemicals. Benzaldehyde, which is a key ingredient in natural fruit flavours, has been shown to cause irritation of respiratory airways in animal and occupational exposure studies. Given the potential inhalation toxicity of this compound, we measured benzaldehyde in aerosol generated in a laboratory setting from flavoured e-cigarettes purchased online and detected benzaldehyde in 108 out of 145 products. The highest levels of benzaldehyde were detected in cherry-flavoured products. The benzaldehyde doses inhaled with 30 puffs from flavoured e-cigarettes were often higher than doses inhaled from a conventional cigarette. Levels in cherry-flavoured products were >1000 times lower than doses inhaled in the workplace. While e-cigarettes seem to be a promising harm reduction tool for smokers, findings indicate that using these products could result in repeated inhalation of benzaldehyde, with long-term users risking regular exposure to the substance. Given the uncertainty surrounding adverse health effects stemming from long-term inhalation of flavouring ingredients such as benzaldehyde, clinicians need to be aware of this emerging risk and ask their patients about use of flavoured e-cigarettes.

Environmental Lead (Pb) Exposure Versus Fatty Acid Content in Blood and Milk of the Mother and in the Blood of Newborn Children.

Significant progress in understanding the effects of the neurotoxic action of lead (Pb) in young organisms had led to reduction of "safe" level in the blood (Pb-B) to 5 µg/dL in children and pregnant women. Prolonged exposure to relatively low levels of Pb, generally asymptomatic and subclinical (i.e., microintoxication), is currently the dominant form of environmental poisoning, and its negative effects on health may appear after many years, e.g., secondary contamination from Pb bone deposits released in pregnancy. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of environmental exposure (urban areas) of mothers to Pb, on its levels in their milk and blood and in the blood of newborns. Moreover, the aim was to determine the fatty acid profile in the mothers' blood and milk and in the blood of newborns. We also wanted to find if infant birth weight depends on Pb blood levels, as well as on Pb and fatty acid levels in the blood and milk of the mothers. Finally, we examined if the mothers' weight and body mass index (BMI) before pregnancy influenced the concentration of Pb and fatty acid profile in the blood and milk of mothers and in the blood of their children. Analysis of fatty acids elaidic (C18:1, 9t), oleic (C18:1, 9c), vaccenic (C18:1, 11t), cis-vaccenic (C18:1, 11c), linoleic (C18:2, cis), γ-linolenic (C18:3, n-6), α-linolenic (C18:3, n-3), arachidonic (C20:4, n-6), eicosapentaenoic (C20:5, n-3), and docosahexaenoic (C22:6, n-3) was conducted by gas chromatography. The concentration of Pb in the whole blood and milk were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry with graphite furnace atomization and Zeeman correction. Our study established a significant and strong correlation between the content of Pb in the blood of the mother and the child. This supports the assumption that the transport of Pb through the placenta is neither regulated nor selective. Environmental maternal exposure to lead resulting in Pb-B levels considered safe for pregnant women had no effect on infant birth weight, the concentration of fatty acids in the blood and milk of mothers, or in the blood of newborns. Mothers' weight and BMI before pregnancy had no effect on the concentration of Pb and studied fatty acid profile.

Effects of perinatal exposure to lead (Pb) on purine receptor expression in the brain and gliosis in rats tolerant to morphine analgesia.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the molecular effects of perinatal exposure to lead (Pb) on protein and mRNA expression of purine receptors: P2X4, P2X7, adenosine receptor A1; and astrocytes (GFAP mRNA expression) and on microglia activation (Iba1 mRNA expression) in several structures of the mesolimbic system (striatum, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex) in rats expressing tolerance to the antinociceptive effect of morphine. Rat mothers were orally treated with 0.1% lead acetate from conception, through gestation, and postnatally, as well as to offspring up to day (PND) 28; subsequently molecular studies were conducted on adult (PND 60) male rats. Morphine tolerance developed more strongly in rats perinatally exposed to Pb. The analysis revealed a significant up-regulation of protein and mRNA P2X4 receptor expression in the striatum and prefrontal cortex but not in the hippocampus; P2X7 protein and mRNA receptor expression in the striatum and hippocampus, but not in the prefrontal cortex; A1 protein receptor expression in all investigated structures and A1 mRNA expression in the striatum and hippocampus; Iba1 mRNA expression in the striatum and hippocampus; and GFAP mRNA expression in the striatum and prefrontal cortex. Immunohistochemical analysis has also revealed significant alterations. Strong expressions of P2X4, P2X7, A1 receptors, astrocytes and microglia activation were observed in the hippocampus in Pb and/or morphine treated rats. The higher expression of purine receptors and glial cell activation are important markers of neuroinflammatory processes. Therefore, we conclude that Pb-induced neuroinflammation may be responsible for the intensification of morphine tolerance in the Pb-treated rats. Additionally, the dysregulation of A1 adenosine receptors, mainly in the hippocampus, may also be involved in the intensification of morphine tolerance in Pb-treated rats. Our study demonstrates the significant participation of environmental factors in addictive process; additionally, it shows the necessity of modification of addictive disorder with neuroprotective agents.

The Effect of Risk Factors on the Levels of Chemical Elements in the Tibial Plateau of Patients with Osteoarthritis following Knee Surgery.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the aforementioned chemical elements in tibial plateau samples obtained during knee arthroplasty. The gender-specific analysis of chemical element levels in the bone samples revealed that there were statistically significant differences in the concentration of Pb and Se/Pb ratio. The contents of elements in the tibial plateau in the patients with osteoarthritis (OA) can be arranged in the following descending order: F(-) > K > Zn > Fe > Sr > Pb > Mn > Se > Cd > THg. We observed statistical significant effects of environmental factors including smoking, seafood diet, and geographical distribution on the levels of the elements in tibial bone. Significant positive correlation coefficients were found for the relationships K-Cd, Zn-Sr, Zn-F(-), THg-Pb, Pb-Cd, Se-Se/Pb, Se-Se/Cd, Se/Pb-Se/Cd, Pb-Cd/Ca, Cd-Cd/Ca, and F(-)-F(-)/Ca·1000. Significant negative correlations were found for the relationships THg-Se/Pb, Pb-Se/Pb, Cd-Se/Pb, K-Se/Cd, Pb-Se/Cd, Cd-Se/Cd, THg-Se/THg, Pb-Se/THg, Se-Pb/Cd, Zn-Cd/Ca, and Se/Cd-Cd/Ca. The results reported here may provide a basis for establishing reference values for the tibial plateau in patients with OA who had undergone knee replacement surgery. The concentrations of elements in the bone with OA were determined by age, presence of implants, smoking, fish and seafood diet, and sport activity.

The effects of neat biodiesel and biodiesel and HVO blends in diesel fuel on exhaust emissions from a light duty vehicle with a diesel engine.

The influence of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) diesel blends on the exhaust emissions from a passenger car was examined. The impact of FAME for the cold urban phase (UDC) was increased CO and HC emissions, probably due to blend physical properties promoting incomplete combustion. The HVO blend caused the lowest CO and HC emissions for the UDC. NOx emissions did not change significantly with the fuel used, however the UDC was characterized by lower NOx emission for FAME blends. Particle emissions were highest with standard diesel. Emissions of carbonyl compounds increased as fuel biodiesel content increased, especially during the UDC. HVO in diesel fuel decreased carbonyl emissions. Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde were the most abundant carbonyl compounds in the exhaust gas. Total particle-bound PAH emissions were variable, the emission of heavier PAHs increased with blend biodiesel content. The HVO blend increased emission of lighter PAHs. Nitro-PAHs were identified only during the UDC and not for all blends; the highest emissions were measured for pure diesel. The results showed that emission of nitro-PAHs may be decreased to a greater extent by using biodiesel than using a HVO blend.

Effects of chronic exposure to lead, cadmium, and manganese mixtures on oxidative stress in rat liver and heart.

The aim of this study was to assess the effects of chronic combined exposure to low, environmental doses of Cd, Pb, and Mn on oxidative stress in the liver and heart of rats and on their liver function parameters. Male Wistar rats were divided randomly into eight groups. For nine months controls were receiving drinking water alone, whereas the exposed groups were receiving drinking water with Pb (0.2 mg L(-1)), Cd (1 mg L(-1)), and Mn (2 mg L(-1)) alone or in combinations. Malondialdehyde (MDA) significantly increased in both heart and liver of the animals after combined exposure to metals. Heart MDA correlated with blood Cd, Pb, and Mn and liver MDA with blood Cd. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activity and bilirubin concentration also increased significantly in the animal group exposed to all three metals and correlated positively with blood Cd, Pb, and Mn. Our study has confirmed the synergistic effect of the Cd, Mn, and Pb combination on the increase in heart MDA. A similar synergy was observed for Pb+Mn in the increase of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity as an indicator of liver function.