Lifetime milk production of Holstein cattle in the humid tropics compared to Holstein-Gyr and Holstein-Brahman crosses.

Crossbred cattle are commonly used for milk production in the tropics, combining the potential benefits of pure breeds with the heterosis effects of the offspring. However, no comprehensive assessment of lifetime productivity for crossbred versus purebred cattle in low-altitude tropical environments has been carried out. The present study compares the lifetime productivity of purebred Holstein (HO, n = 17,269), Gyr (GY4, n = 435), and Brahman (BR4, n = 622) with crossbreds Gyr × Holstein (GY × HO, n = 5521) and Brahman×Holstein (BR × HO, n = 5429) cows from dairy farms located in low and medium altitude tropical regions in Costa Rica. The production traits of interest were age at first calving (AFC), days open (DO), milk production per lactation (TMP), lactation length (LLEN), age at culling (ACUL), and number of lactations (NLAC). Estimates of heterosis were also calculated. The AFC for GY × HO crosses (33-34 months) was not significantly different (p > .05) from HO (33.8 months). For BR × HO crosses, a significant (p < .05) decrease in AFC (BR3HO1 35.6 months, BR2HO2 34.5 months, and BR1H03 33.3 months) was observed as the fraction of HO breed increased. Estimates of heterosis for AFC were favourable for both crosses, of a magnitude close to 3%. The DO for F1 crosses (GY2HO2 94 days; BR2HO2 96 days) was significantly (p < .05) lower than HO (123 days). Estimates of heterosis for DO were also favourable and above 15% for both crosses. The TMP and LLEN were higher for HO (TMP = 5003 kg; LLEN = 324 days) compared with GY × HO (TMP = 4428 to 4773 kg; LLEN = 298 to 312 days) and BR × HO (TMP = 3950 to 4761 kg; LLEN = 273 to 313 days) crosses. Heterosis for TMP was favourable but low for both crosses, with a magnitude below 3.0%. The NLAC for HO (4.6 lactations) was significantly (p < .05) lower than F1 (GY2HO2, 5.8 lactations; BR2HO2, 5.4 lactations). Heterosis for NLAC was above 6.0% for both crosses. Overall, estimates of lifetime income over feed costs per cow on average were USD 2637 (30.3%) and USD 734 (8.4%) higher in F1 GY × HO and BR × HO, respectively, compared to HO. In conclusion, crossbred animals, specifically those with Gyr and Brahman genetics, extend the productive lifespan, increasing economic returns.

Risk Factors Associated with Failure of Toe Amputation in Diabetic Foot Infections.

We aim to identify the factors associated with the failure of amputation of one to three toes (index toe amputation) in patients with diabetes and foot infection. We conducted a retrospective cohort of 175 patients with diabetes who were hospitalized for moderate to severe foot infection and underwent amputation of one to three toes. A Poisson regression model was used to determine the prevalence ratio (PR) as a measure of association. The mean age was 63.3 ± 11.4 years. Fifty-three patients presented failure after undergoing toe amputation (30.3%). Multivariate analysis, adjusted for age and sex, showed the following significant variables: severe infection (PR: 1.78; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.14-2.78; P = 0.011), infection by Escherichia coli (PR: 2.21; 95% CI: 1.42-3.43; P < 0.001), infection by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PR: 2.11; 95% CI: 1.29-3.43; P = 0.003) and prothrombin time (PR: 1.13; 95% CI: 1.05-1.21; P = 0.001), obesity (PR: 0.58; 95% CI: 0.37-0.93; P = 0.024), and haemoglobin value (PR: 0.92; 95% CI: 0.86-0.99; P = 0.023). About one-third of patients who underwent amputation of one to three toes for diabetic foot infection presented a failure and required a more proximal surgery. Severe infections, isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli, and prolonged prothrombin time were associated with a higher prevalence of failure. However, obesity and an elevated haemoglobin level were associated with a lower prevalence of failure.

Seroprevalence and detection of bovine leukosis virus in semen from breeding bulls in Costa Rica.

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) causes enzootic bovine leukosis, a persistent infection and the most important neoplastic disease in cattle. It is spread primarily by transferring infected lymphocytes through blood from carriers to healthy animals. The present study is aimed at determining the seropositivity of BLV in breeding bulls from Costa Rica and at detecting for the first time in the country BLV DNA in bull semen. Between May 2011 and August 2018, 379 blood and 133 semen samples were collected from bulls distributed in 118 farms. The serum was analyzed by an enzymatic immunoassay and the semen by polymerase chain reaction and sequencing. BLV seropositivity was 43.5% (165/379), while 64.4% (76/118) of the farms had positive reactors. Holstein (75.7%) and Jersey (73.0%) breeds showed the highest seropositivity. In addition, Bos taurus bulls (68.1%), older than seven years (50.0%), and those belonging to dairy farms (75.5%) had higher seropositivity compared to Bos indicus (17.7%), younger than seven years (42.2%), and those from beef farms (15.5%), respectively. Moreover, Bos taurus bulls had a higher risk of being seropositive than Bos indicus (OR = 3.4; 95% CI: 1.7-6.8). BLV DNA was found in one semen sample (2.5%; 1/40) from a seropositive bull. The importance of serum and molecular BLV screening in semen samples and the potential role of some risk factors associated with the disease, such as the bull's age, genotype, and type of livestock productive system, is argued in the present report.

Mortalidad de pacientes internados por pie diabético en un hospital de Costa Rica (2017-2019) / Mortality of inpatients due to diabetic foot in a hospital in Costa Rica (2017-2019)

Resumen Objetivo: Identificar factores clínicos y sociodemográficos asociados a la mortalidad en los pacientes internados por pie diabético, en la Unidad de Pie Diabético del Hospital San Juan de Dios de Costa Rica, del año 2017 al 2019. Materiales y métodos: Estudio de cohorte retrospectivo con 238 pacientes, seguidos desde su internamiento hasta la muerte o al 31 de diciembre del 2021 aún vivos. Análisis descriptivo a variables sociodemográficas, clínicas y causas de muerte. Modelo de riesgos proporcionales de Cox para todas las causas de muerte, y otro exclusivo para muerte por causa cardiovascular. Tiempos de supervivencia se analizan por curvas de Kaplan-Meier, con la prueba de log-Rank para comparar curvas. Resultados: Mayoría de los fallecidos eran hombres, no contaban con pareja, residían en zona urbana o predominantemente urbana, de 15 años o más de ser diabéticos, hipertensos, con enfermedad arterial periférica, anemia, hemoglobina glicosilada inadecuada y obesidad. La tasa de mortalidad fue 23,53%, y la principal causa de muerte fue la enfermedad cardiovascular (35,70 %). Las variables asociadas con mortalidad por todas las causas, ajustadas por edad y sexo fueron: ausencia de pareja (HR: 13,09; IC 95 %: 4,04-42,31), obesidad (HR: 2,89; IC 95 %: 1,59-5,27), enfermedad arterial periférica (HR: 2,26; IC 95 %: 1,25-4,09), años de evolución de la diabetes mellitus ≥ 15 años (HR: 1,99; IC 95 %: 1,04-3,82). A su vez, para mortalidad cardiovascular fueron: obesidad (HR: 6,42; IC 95 %: 2,07-19,87), enfermedad arterial periférica (HR: 3,88; IC 95 %: 1,39-10,79) y cardiopatía (HR: 4,11; IC 95 %: 1,62-10,46). Conclusiones: Años de evolución de la diabetes mellitus mayor o igual a 15 años, no contar con pareja; la obesidad y enfermedad arterial periférica se asoció a mortalidad por todas las causas. Respecto a muerte por enfermedad cardiovascular, las variables asociadas fueron obesidad, enfermedad arterial periférica y cardiopatía.

Abstract Objective: To identify clinical and sociodemographic factors associated with mortality in patients hospitalized for diabetic foot, in the Diabetic Foot Unit of the San Juan de Dios Hospital in Costa Rica, from 2017 to 2019. Materials and methods: A retrospective cohort study with 238 patients, followed from hospitalization until death or until December 31, 2021, still alive. A descriptive analysis is made of the sociodemographic, clinical, and cause of death variables. A Cox proportional hazards model is run for all causes of death, and another exclusively for death from cardiovascular causes. Survival times are analyzed using Kaplan-Meier curves, with the log-rank test for comparison. Results: Most of the deceased were men, did not have a partner, lived in urban or predominantly urban areas, were 15 years or older, diabetic, hypertensive, with peripheral arterial disease, anemia, inadequate glycosylated hemoglobin, and obesity. The mortality rate was 23,53%, and cardiovascular disease was the main cause of death (35,70%). The variables associated with all-cause mortality, adjusted for age and sex were: absence of a partner (HR: 13,09; 95% CI: 4,04-42,31), obesity (HR: 2,89; 95% CI %: 1,59-5,27), peripheral arterial disease (HR: 2,26; CI 95%: 1,25-4,09), years of evolution of diabetes mellitus ≥ 15 years (HR: 1,99; CI 95 %: 1,04-3,82). In turn, for cardiovascular mortality were: obesity (HR: 6,42; 95% CI: 2,07-19,87), peripheral arterial disease (HR: 3,88; 95% CI: 1,39-10,79) and heart disease (HR: 4,11; 95% CI: 1,62-10,46). Conclusions: Evolution of diabetes mellitus greater than or equal to 15 years, not having a partner, obesity and peripheral arterial disease were associated with all-cause mortality. Regarding death from cardiovascular disease, the associated variables were obesity, peripheral arterial disease, and heart disease.

Highly Effective Frontal Stunning Procedure Using a Pneumatic Penetrating Captive Bolt in Water Buffaloes.

An effective frontal stunning procedure in water buffaloes was assessed using a pneumatic penetrating captive bolt (PPCB) with high air pressure. The study contemplated two phases; first, 352 buffaloes and 168 post-mortem heads were evaluated to determine the most effective anatomical site for stunning. Then, the second phase (n = 182) was used to validate the stunning procedure at the discovered anatomical site in the first phase, which was located 8 cm dorsal above the middle of the forehead on an "X" formed between the eyes and the base of the contralateral horns, and 2 cm lateral, avoiding the midline, where the skull tended to narrow. A total of 95.1% of buffaloes received effective stunning at the first shot with evidence of the presence of collapse, absence of rhythmic breathing, and absence of ocular reflexes (corneal and palpebral). There were no differences in the stunning efficacy by sex, breed, or skull thickness. These findings demonstrated that stunning with a PPCB at pressures of 1379-1516.8 KPa (200-220 pounds per square inch (psi)) in the site reported here produces a highly effective stunning at the first shot in water buffaloes.

Effects of Season on Donor and Recipient Cows and Calf Performance from Birth to Weaning in Embryo Transfer Programs in the Tropics.

The aim of this study was to assess the seasonal effect of an embryo transfer program in the tropics on the donor response, recipient reproductive performance and calf growth from birth to weaning. This study included five-year records from 145 donors, 1149 embryo transfers (ET) and 609 in calves. The effect of the season (dry or wet) was evaluated at the time of embryo flushing, embryo transfer and birth of the calves. There was a seasonal effect on the yield and quality of the embryos. The number of nonfertilized and transferable good quality embryos increased in the wet season. For the recipients, the probability of pregnancy after an ET decreased by 6% for each year of the dam's age. However, no seasonal effect was found when comparing ET calves with their control group (natural mating-NM), nevertheless, weaning weight was associated with birth body weight, treatment, sex of the calf, season at birth, year of treatment, and dam's age. Calves born by NM had lower average daily gain (ADG), and male calves registered higher gains than females. Likewise, calves born during the rainy season had lower ADG compared with calves born during the dry season. In conclusion, this study shows that seasonal effect is more apparent in donor and calf performance than in the recipients.

Seroprevalence and prevalence of Babesia vogeli in clinically healthy dogs and their ticks in Costa Rica.

Canine babesiosis is a disease caused by a parasite of the genus Babesia which destroys red blood cells. Previous studies have shown the presence of Babesia vogeli in rural areas in Costa Rica using molecular techniques. The objective of the present study was to determine the seroprevalence and prevalence of B. vogeli in clinically healthy dogs and their ticks at the national level, both within and outside the Central Valley. Blood samples and ticks from 482 dogs were collected between June 2011 and May 2014, and analyzed by immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR); two protocols of endpoint PCR and sequencing were used to confirm qPCR-positive samples. Seroprevalence of canine babesiosis of 5.3% (24/453) was determined at the national level, specifically 2.0% (5/253) within and 9.5% (19/200) outside the Central Valley, respectively. Real-time PCR determined a global prevalence of B. vogeli of 31.3% (125/400): 21.4% (47/220) within the Central Valley and 43.3% (78/180) outside the Central Valley. The endpoint PCR amplified only 10 of the 125 blood samples identified as positive in qPCR. One sample amplified by endpoint PCR was sequenced and identified as B. vogeli. Twelve canines were identified with past infections, seven canines with active infection, and 111 canines with early infection. Two species of ticks were found with B. vogeli: Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato (n = 40) and Amblyomma ovale (n = 1). The prevalence of canine babesiosis at the national level, both within and outside the Central Valley, is reported here for the first time, determining the presence of the piroplasmid throughout the country, with a higher circulation of the agent outside the Central Valley. Only one species, B. vogeli, was detected in the blood of dogs and their ticks. Therefore, veterinarians should consider using qPCR to determine the presence of the parasite in blood donors and before starting treatment of vector-borne disease in dogs.

Seroprevalence of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus on swine farms in a tropical country of the Middle Americas: the case of Costa Rica.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) causes significant economic losses to the swine industry worldwide. Little is known regarding the epidemiology of this infection in tropical countries. To address this problem in Costa Rica, a seroepidemiological study was carried out in two phases. In the first phase, a pilot study was conducted in nine farms with the clinical diagnosis of PRRSV. In total, 265 pig serum samples were collected from animals ranging in age from 1 to 15 weeks of age. This study aimed to establish the duration of maternal immunity in piglets, to identify the period of viremia, and to determine when seroconversion occurs. In the second phase, a cross-sectional serology study was performed on a representative sample of the Costa Rican national herds in the second phase. The twenty-five selected farms represent all provinces and were classified according to herd size (100 to 2000 sows). In each farm, pigs aged 8, 10, and 12 weeks were sampled, as well as gilts based on the pilot study. In total 1281 pigs were sampled across all 25 farms. The aim of the cross-sectional study was to quantify the seroprevalence of PRRSV in Costa Rican pig farms and to describe its geographical distribution in this tropical country. The prevalence of positive farms was 44% (11/25), and these farms were located in six of the seven provinces of Costa Rica. Overall, 58% (344/596) of the pigs were seropositive to PRRSV. The age of the pigs and the ecozone where farms were located were significantly related with PRRSV seroprevalence in animals and herds, respectively.

Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Diversity of Campylobacter spp. Isolated from Broiler Chicken at Three Levels of the Poultry Production Chain in Costa Rica.

ABSTRACT: Campylobacter spp. are considered the most common bacterial cause of human gastroenteritis, one of the four main causes of diarrheal disease worldwide, and they are one of the main foodborne pathogens causing hospitalizations and deaths. Here, 148 strains of Campylobacter spp. isolated from poultry at farms, processing plants, and retail stores in Costa Rica were examined for resistance to six antibiotics. An agar dilution test was used to determine the MIC and susceptibility profiles against doxycycline, ciprofloxacin, nalidixic acid, enrofloxacin, chloramphenicol, and erythromycin. In addition, a pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis was carried out to determine the genotype relatedness of a representative subset of the isolates. Approximately 136 (92%) of the 148 analyzed isolates showed resistance to the tested drugs. Nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, and enrofloxacin were the antibiotics for which resistance occurred most frequently (91.2, 85.8, and 85.8%, respectively), followed by doxycycline (25.0%), chloramphenicol (5.4%), and erythromycin (2.7%). The profile conferring only resistance to quinolones was the most frequently found, and only 2.0% of the isolates showed resistance to quinolones and macrolides simultaneously. Results showed a high frequency of resistant Campylobacter spp. strains and evidenced the distribution, selection, and circulation of resistant strains along the poultry chain from farms to consumers. Cross-contamination and resistance seem to play important roles in the dissemination of these strains at specific points of the poultry chain, even when control measures are being taken. The establishment of effective surveillance and control strategies represents an essential tool for foodborne diseases mitigation. The rational use of antibiotics, especially those still showing efficacy, should be a priority in both human and veterinary medicine to contain the progress of this phenomenon and its consequences.

National Seroprevalence and Risk Factors for Eastern Equine Encephalitis and Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis in Costa Rica.

Eastern equine encephalitis and Venezuelan equine encephalitis are endemic neglected tropical diseases in the Americas, causing encephalitis in both horses and humans. In 2013, a cross-sectional study was performed in 243 horses located in the highlands and lowlands throughout Costa Rica. Serum samples were analyzed with an IgG ELISA and confirmed by the plaque-reduction neutralization test (PRNT80). Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) and Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) overall seroprevalences by the PRNT80 were 36% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 29.9-42.5; 78/217 horses) and 3% (95% CI: 1.3-5.9; 6/217 horses), respectively. Both the viruses occurred in the lowlands and highlands. Rainfall and altitude were associated with VEEV seropositivity in the univariate analysis, but only altitude <100 meters above sea level was considered a risk factor in the multivariate analysis. No risk factors could be identified for the EEEV in the multivariate analysis. This is the first study that estimates the seroprevalence of the EEEV and VEEV in Costa Rican horses. The VEEV is widely distributed, whereas the EEEV occurs at a much lower frequency and only in specific areas. Clinical cases and occasional outbreaks of both viruses are to be expected.

Exposure of dogs to Rickettsia spp. in Costa Rica: Risk factors for PCR-positive ectoparasites and seropositivity.

Infection of dogs with Rickettsia spp. can result in inapparent, mild, or severe disease. Moreover, common dog ticks and fleas are able to transmit rickettsiae to nearby humans. In this study, the seroprevalence of spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsiae was determined in dogs of Costa Rica, as well as possible risk factors associated with exposure. An interview of owners and clinical examinations were performed in a country-wide sample of 441 dogs. IgG antibodies were determined in 399 dogs by indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) using antigens of Rickettsia rickettsii, R. amblyommatis, and R. felis. The presence of Rickettsia spp. gltA gene was evaluated by PCR in ticks and fleas. Poisson regression was performed to assess possible risk factors associated with seropositivity, as well as with having PCR-positive ticks and fleas. The overall seroprevalence to SFG rickettsiae was 10.0% (end titers 64 to 256). Rhipicephalus sanguineus s.l. (116/441; 26.3%) and Ctenocephalides felis (153/441; 34.7%) were the most common ectoparasites. Rickettsia DNA was detected in 30% (39/130) and 32.3% (56/173) of tick and flea pools, respectively. Seropositivity was significantly associated with mean age of 2 to 7 years, scrotal edema, walking problems, large size, and tick and flea infestation. Being a purebred dog was a possible protective factor. The presence of Rickettsia PCR-positive ticks was associated with being a purebred dog, while flea treatment was protective. Having PCR-positive fleas was associated with being purebred and the number of people in the dog's environment; protective factors were free roaming and being an outdoor dog. Results confirm that dogs in Costa Rica are exposed to different species of SFG rickettsiae. This may represent a risk to human health and underscores the need for accurate diagnosis in dogs and humans. Surveillance of rickettsial infection in canines may provide useful indicators to understand the epidemiology of these zoonoses.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections and associated factors in sheep from Costa Rica.

The presence of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum were analyzed in 392 sheep sera from ten Costa Rican ovine flocks using indirect immuno-enzymatic assays. Additionally, general information about sheep management, environment, and clinical reproductive disorders was assessed through a questionnaire to inquire factors related to these apicomplexan parasites. A total of 161 (41.1%) serum samples reacted positive to T. gondii, 43 (10.9%) to N. caninum and 26 (6.63%) to both parasites. Toxoplasma gondii serorreactors were detected in all the analyzed flocks (100.0%), meanwhile N. caninum antibodies were found in nine flocks (90%), from the six Costa Rican regions. Factors associated with T. gondii were the co-presence of cattle (OR = 5.06; C.I.95%; 2.08-12.30; p: <0.001), grey foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) and opossums (Didelphis marsupialis) (OR = 2.44; C.I.95%; 1.50-3.95; p: <0.001) inside or around the farms, and the presence of peccaries (Tayassu sp.) (OR = 0.35; C.I.95%; 0.16-0.74; p: 0.0058) was a variable associated with N. caninum seropositivity. The obtained results of T. gondii and N. caninum infections in sheep flocks from Costa Rica should be considered for the proper prevention and control strategies against these apicomplexan abortive parasites.

Caracterización clínica y epidemiológica de la población tamizada en el centro de detección temprana de cáncer gástrico, costa rica: período 1996-2015 / Clinical and Epidemiological Characterization Of The Tamized Population At The Early Detection Center of Gastric Cancer, Costa Rica: Period 1996-2015

Resumen Objetivo: Describir características clínicas y epidemiológicas de los pacientes tamizados en el Centro Detección Temprana de Cáncer Gástrico (CDTCG) del Hospital Max Peralta de Cartago. Métodos: Estudio longitudinal prospectivo histórico de tipo descriptivo, y retrospectivo de caso-control. Incluyó los pacientes tamizados entre 1996 y 2015 en el CDTCG. Se realizó estadística descriptiva y se estimó factores de riesgo mediante regresión logística no condicional. Resultados: Hubo 33020 pacientes tamizados. La razón de masculinidad fue de 0.58, y la edad promedio global 54 años. El 2,73% fue diagnosticado con cáncer gástrico. Varios antecedentes y síntomas fueron factores de riesgo: edad mayor de 65 años (OR= 3,33; IC 95%: 1,60-6,91), vómito (OR= 2,48; IC 95%: 1,49-4,13), pérdida de apetito (OR= 2,27; IC 95%: 1,58-3,25) y dolor de estómago (OR= 1,81; IC 95%: 1,27-2,58), así como los antecedentes de fumado (OR= 1,41; IC 95%: 0,93-2,13) y de otro tipo de cáncer (OR= 3,46; IC 95%: 1,75-6,83). Por otro lado, factores protectores fueron el sexo femenino (OR= 0,45; IC 95%: 0,32-0,65), ardor gástrico (OR= 0,56; IC 95%: 0,40-0,80) y antecedente personal de cardiopatía (OR= 0,45; IC 95%: 0,24-0,83). Conclusión: Los factores asociados al cáncer gástrico de la población atendida por el CDTCG concuerdan, en su mayoría, con lo reportado en la literatura. Tener la certeza de ellos y su magnitud, son fundamentales en la detección temprana y el tamizaje en la atención primaria en salud. Futuras investigaciones respecto a cómo afectan estos factores la sobrevida en los pacientes intervenidos por esta patología quedan pendientes.

Abstract Objective: To describe the clinical and epidemiological characteristics of patients screened at the Center for Early Detection of Gastric Cancer (CDTCG) at the Max Peralta Hospital in Cartago. Methods: This is a two-stage study: historical longitudinal descriptive and a case-control study. All patients screened between 1996 and 2015 in the CDTCG were included. Descriptive statistics were calculated and risk factors were estimated through non-conditional logistic regression. Results: 33020 patients were screened, with a male ratio of 0.58 and an average age of 54 years. From this population, 2.73% were diagnosed with gastric cancer. Several antecedents and symptoms were determined as risk factors: age over 65 years (OR = 3.33; 95% CI: 1.60-6.91), vomiting (OR = 2.48; 95% CI: 1.49-4.13), loss of appetite (OR = 2.27; 95% CI: 1.58-3.25) , stomach pain (OR = 1.81; 95% CI: 1.27-2.58), history of smoking (OR = 1.41; 95% CI: 0.93-2.13) and antecedents of another type of cancer (OR = 3.46; 95% CI: 1.75- 6.83). Moreover, protective factors were: female (OR = 0.45; 95% CI: 0.32-0.65), gastric burning (OR = 0.56; 95% CI: 0.40-0.80) and a personal history of heart disease (OR = 0.45; 95% CI: 0.24-0.83). Conclusion: Factors associated with gastric cancer in the population attended by CDTCG agreed with those reported in the literature. Knowing them and their magnitude are crucial in early detection and screening for primary health care. Future investigations regarding how these factors affect the survival in the patients treated by this pathology should be carried out.

Variations in the Temperature-Humidity Index and Dorsal Fat Thickness during the Last Trimester of Gestation and Early Postpartum Period Affect Fertility of Bos indicus Cows in the Tropics.

In order to measure the influence of the temperature-humidity index (THI) and the variation of fat thickness on reproductive performance, ninety-two Bos indicus cows kept under grazing conditions were used in two farms in Veracruz (Mexico) and Puntarenas (Costa Rica). THI was calculated with the average environmental temperature and relative humidity. Measurements of fat thickness (FAT) were taken two weeks apart from the last trimester of gestation to approximately 80 days postpartum (dpp). Natural breeding was used in both farms. Time to conception was calculated based on the interval from days at risk to conception (DRC), which had to be at least 28 dpp. THI was between 65.4 ± 2.9 and 73.2 ± 1.5 in Veracruz and 75.4 ± 0.26 and 76.5 ± 0.55 in Puntarenas. Variations in THI were observed in Puntarenas whereas in Veracruz THI variations were more prominent. In Veracruz, loss of fat during the last trimester of gestation was on average 8.5%, whereas in the postpartum period it was 18.4% (P = 0.042). In Puntarenas, the variation in the last trimester of gestation was on average 18.7% and in the postpartum period was 10.5% (P = 0.012). The relative change in FAT in Veracruz was 36.7%, and in Puntarenas it was 29.3%. Overall, 60% of the cows became pregnant. FAT decreased the interval of DRC (R2=0.06; P=0.033) with a high relationship (R2=0.76; P< 0.0001) between THI and time to conception, in both farms. In conclusion, THI levels influence the reproductive performance in early postpartum period affecting DRC.

Seroprevalence and factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii-, Neospora caninum- and Coxiella burnetii-infections in dairy goat flocks from Costa Rica.

A total of 391 goats from 13 dairy flocks from all Costa Rican regions were analyzed for Toxoplasma gondii-, Neospora caninum- and Coxiella burnetii-related seroprevalence by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Additionally, a risk factor analysis for these parasitic infections was performed based on a questionnaire considering several environmental and housing/management factors. A total of 62.1% (243/391) of individual serum samples revealed seropositive for T. gondii, 7.9% (31/391) for N. caninum, and 1.8% (7/391) for C. burnetii. At herd level, the overall seroprevalence for T. gondii was 100%, for N. caninum 69.2% and for C. burnetii 7.7%. However, no clinical signs related to toxoplasmosis, neosporosis or Q fever were apparent in these flocks. T. gondii-related risk factors were the contact with cats (OR = 3.44; CI 95%; 2.0-5.91), dogs (OR = 5.75; CI 95%; 2.84-11.66), and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) (OR = 0.15; CI 95%; 0.08-0.26) within or around the farms. The presence of reproductive males in each flock (OR = 0.32; CI 95%; 0.14-0.74) and the coexistence of sheep (OR = 0.46; CI 95%; 0.2-1.08) and cattle (OR = 5.94; CI 95%; 1.70-20.78) revealed as protective and risk factors respectively for N. caninum infections. This study determined for the first time the seroprevalences of N. caninum, T. gondii and C. burnetii in Costa Rican goat flocks. Particularly, the high within-herd seroprevalences determined for T. gondii requires further surveillance to complement these findings.

Brucellosis in mammals of Costa Rica: An epidemiological survey.

Brucellosis has been an endemic disease of cattle and humans in Costa Rica since the beginning of XX century. However, brucellosis in sheep, goats, pigs, water buffaloes, horses and cetaceans, has not been reported in the country. We have performed a brucellosis survey in these host mammal species, from 1999-2016. In addition, we have documented the number of human brucellosis reported cases, from 2003-2016. The brucellosis seroprevalence in goat and sheep herds was 0.98% and 0.7% respectively, with no Brucella isolation. Antibodies against Brucella were not detected in feral or domestic pigs. Likewise, brucellosis seroprevalence in horse and water buffalo farms was estimated in 6.5% and 21.7%, respectively, with no Brucella isolation. Six cetacean species showed positive reactions against Brucella antigens, and B. ceti was isolated in 70% (n = 29) of striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba). A steady increase in the diagnosis of human brucellosis cases was observed. Taking into account the prevalence of brucellosis in the various host mammals of Costa Rica, different measures are recommended.

Epidemiology of bovine brucellosis in Costa Rica: Lessons learned from failures in the control of the disease.

Brucellosis, caused by Brucella abortus is a major disease of cattle and a zoonosis. In order to estimate the bovine brucellosis prevalence in Costa Rica (CR), a total 765 herds (13078 bovines) from six regions of CR were randomly sampled during 2012-2013. A non-random sample of 7907 herds (532199 bovines) of the six regions, arriving for diagnoses during 2014-2016 to the Costa Rican Animal Health Service was also studied. The prevalence estimated by Rose Bengal test (RBT) ranged from 10.5%-11.4%; alternatively, the prevalence estimated by testing the RBT positives in iELISA, ranged from 4.1%-6.0%, respectively. However, cattle in CR are not vaccinated with B. abortus S19 but with RB51 (vaccination coverage close to 11%), and under these conditions the RBT displays 99% specificity and 99% sensitivity. Therefore, the RBT herd depicted in the random analysis stands as a feasible assessment and then, the recommended value in case of planning an eradication program in CR. Studies of three decades reveled that bovine brucellosis prevalence has increased in CR. B. abortus was identified by biochemical and molecular studies as the etiological agent of bovine brucellosis. Multiple locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis-16 revealed four B. abortus clusters. Cluster one and three are intertwined with isolates from other countries, while clusters two and four have only representatives from CR. Cluster one is widely distributed in all regions of the country and may be the primary B. abortus source. The other clusters seem to be restricted to specific areas in CR. The implications of our findings, in relation to the control of the disease in CR, are critically discussed.

Serological detection of antibodies to Anaplasma spp., Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and Ehrlichia canis and of Dirofilaria immitis antigen in dogs from Costa Rica.

In a study in Costa Rica 314 serum samples from dogs throughout all seven provinces were tested using a commercial kit for the detection of circulating antibodies against Anaplasma spp., Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and Ehrlichia canis, and of circulating antigen of Dirofilaria immitis. A total of 6.4% (20/314) and 38.2% (120/314) were positive for Anaplasma spp. (An) and E. canis (Ec) antibodies. Overall, 8.0% (25/314) were positive for D. immitis (Di) antigen. One single dog reacted positive with B. burgdorferi s.l. (Bb) antigen (0.3%, 1/314). E. canis positive dogs were detected in all provinces (highest percentages in Guanacaste, Puntarenas [both significantly different compared to the overall] and Limón). Guanacaste and Puntarenas also showed the highest prevalences of Anaplasma spp. (both significantly different compared to the overall). The highest prevalence of D. immitis was detected in Puntarenas (significantly different compared to the overall). Double pathogen exposure (Ec plus An; Ec plus Di; Ec plus Bb) were recorded in 8.9% (28/314). Two dogs showed a triple pathogen exposure (0.6%, 2/314; An, Ec and Di). There was a significant difference between male (11.5%, 18/156) and female (4.4%, 7/158) animals for D. immitis positive results. There was also a significant difference between breed and no breed dogs regarding the characteristics of a general positive test, as well as seropositivity to the single pathogens of Anaplasma spp., E. canis and D. immitis. Finally there was a significant difference in the presence of clinical signs again regarding the characteristics of a general positive test, as well as seropositivity to Anaplasma spp., E. canis and D. immitis. Practitioners in Costa Rica should be aware of the canine vector-borne diseases mentioned as dogs are at risk of becoming infected. Concerning the positive B. burgdorferi s.l. dog, an autochthonous occurrence cannot be confirmed due to a history of adoption and an unusual tattoo number. Veterinary advice to protect dogs and limit transmission of vector-borne pathogens, also to humans, by using prophylactic measures is strongly recommended.

Molecular Detection of Plasmodium malariae/Plasmodium brasilianum in Non-Human Primates in Captivity in Costa Rica.

One hundred and fifty-two blood samples of non-human primates of thirteen rescue centers in Costa Rica were analyzed to determine the presence of species of Plasmodium using thick blood smears, semi-nested multiplex polymerase chain reaction (SnM-PCR) for species differentiation, cloning and sequencing for confirmation. Using thick blood smears, two samples were determined to contain the Plasmodium malariae parasite, with SnM-PCR, a total of five (3.3%) samples were positive to P. malariae, cloning and sequencing confirmed both smear samples as P. malariae. One sample amplified a larger and conserved region of 18S rDNA for the genus Plasmodium and sequencing confirmed the results obtained microscopically and through SnM-PCR tests. Sequencing and construction of a phylogenetic tree of this sample revealed that the P. malariae/P. brasilianum parasite (GenBank KU999995) found in a howler monkey (Alouatta palliata) is identical to that recently reported in humans in Costa Rica. The SnM-PCR detected P. malariae/P. brasilianum parasite in different non-human primate species in captivity and in various regions of the southern Atlantic and Pacific coast of Costa Rica. The similarity of the sequences of parasites found in humans and a monkey suggests that monkeys may be acting as reservoirs of P.malariae/P. brasilianum, for which reason it is important, to include them in control and eradication programs.

Novel genotype of Ehrlichia canis detected in samples of human blood bank donors in Costa Rica.

This study focuses on the detection and identification of DNA and antibodies to Ehrlichia spp. in samples of blood bank donors in Costa Rica using molecular and serological techniques. Presence of Ehrlichia canis was determined in 10 (3.6%) out of 280 blood samples using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the ehrlichial dsb conserved gene. Analysis of the ehrlichial trp36 polymorphic gene in these 10 samples revealed substantial polymorphism among the E. canis genotypes, including divergent tandem repeat sequences. Nucleotide sequences of dsb and trp36 amplicons revealed a novel genotype of E. canis in blood bank donors from Costa Rica. Indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) detected antibodies in 35 (35%) of 100 serum samples evaluated. Thirty samples showed low endpoint titers (64-256) to E. canis, whereas five sera yielded high endpoint titers (1024-8192); these five samples were also E. canis-PCR positive. These findings represent the first report of the presence of E. canis in humans in Central America.