Sexual and reproductive health of migrant women and girls from the Northern Triangle of Central America.

Objective: To understand the sexual and reproductive health (SRH) experiences of migrant women and girls of reproductive age (15-49 years) from the Northern Triangle of Central America (El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras) during their journey to the United States. Methods: A descriptive, qualitative research design included 39 in-depth interviews with migrant women and unaccompanied migrant girls from El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras from January to June 2022. Participants were recruited using purposive sampling. Interviews were transcribed, coded and analyzed using thematic analysis. Results: Migrant women and girls lack information and resources to manage their SRH during migration. The SRH of those traveling with smugglers is compromised due to their limited access to menstrual pads, water and sanitation services; the risks of transactional sex and sexual violence; the high risk of sexually transmitted infections; the inability to report sexual violence; the lack of access to SRH and prenatal services; and limited knowledge about their sexual and reproductive rights. Conclusions: There is a significant need for improved interventions during the predeparture phase of migration to inform migrant women and girls about the SRH risks they may encounter and to provide information and resources to support their SRH throughout their journey. Special attention should be directed towards trying to reach girls and women who will travel with smugglers.

Sexual and reproductive health of migrant women and girls from the Northern Triangle of Central America

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To understand the sexual and reproductive health (SRH) experiences of migrant women and girls of reproductive age (15–49 years) from the Northern Triangle of Central America (El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras) during their journey to the United States. Methods. A descriptive, qualitative research design included 39 in-depth interviews with migrant women and unac- companied migrant girls from El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras from January to June 2022. Participants were recruited using purposive sampling. Interviews were transcribed, coded and analyzed using thematic analysis. Results. Migrant women and girls lack information and resources to manage their SRH during migration. The SRH of those traveling with smugglers is compromised due to their limited access to menstrual pads, water and sanitation services; the risks of transactional sex and sexual violence; the high risk of sexually transmitted infections; the inability to report sexual violence; the lack of access to SRH and prenatal services; and limited knowledge about their sexual and reproductive rights. Conclusions. There is a significant need for improved interventions during the predeparture phase of migra- tion to inform migrant women and girls about the SRH risks they may encounter and to provide information and resources to support their SRH throughout their journey. Special attention should be directed towards trying to reach girls and women who will travel with smugglers.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Conocer las experiencias relacionadas con la salud sexual y reproductiva (SSR) de mujeres y niñas migrantes en edad reproductiva (15-49 años) del Triángulo Norte de América Central (El Salvador, Guatemala y Honduras) durante su viaje hacia Estados Unidos. Métodos. Se llevó a cabo una investigación descriptiva y cualitativa que incluyó 39 entrevistas en profundidad a mujeres y niñas no acompañadas migrantes de El Salvador, Guatemala y Honduras, entre enero y junio de 2022. El reclutamiento de las participantes se llevó a cabo mediante un muestreo intencional. Las entrevistas fueron transcritas, codificadas y analizadas mediante análisis temático. Resultados. Las mujeres y niñas migrantes carecen de información y recursos para cuidar su SSR durante la migración. La SSR de las personas que viajan con traficantes de personas se ve afectada por un acceso limitado a toallas menstruales, agua y servicios sanitarios; los riesgos del sexo transaccional y la violencia sexual; el alto riesgo de infecciones de transmisión sexual; la imposibilidad de denunciar la violencia sexual; la falta de acceso a servicios de SSR y prenatales; y el conocimiento limitado sobre sus derechos sexuales y reproductivos. Conclusiones. Existe una necesidad significativa de mejorar las intervenciones durante la fase previa a la migración para informar a las mujeres y niñas migrantes sobre los riesgos relacionados con la SSR que pueden encontrar y proporcionar información y recursos para apoyar su SSR a lo largo de su viaje. Debe prestarse especial atención a intentar llegar a las niñas y mujeres que viajarán con traficantes de personas.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Conhecer as experiências de saúde sexual e reprodutiva (SSR) de mulheres e meninas migrantes na idade reprodutiva (15-49 anos) do Triângulo Norte da América Central (El Salvador, Guatemala e Hondu- ras) durante sua viagem aos Estados Unidos. Método. Foi realizada uma pesquisa descritiva e qualitativa que incluiu 39 entrevistas em profundidade com mulheres e meninas não acompanhadas migrantes de El Salvador, Guatemala e Honduras, entre janeiro e junho de 2022. As entrevistas foram transcritas, codificadas e analisadas mediante análise temática. Resultados. As mulheres e meninas migrantes carecem de informações e recursos para cuidar seu SSR durante a migração. La SSR das pessoas que viajam com traficantes de pessoas é afetada pelo acesso lim- itado a absorventes menstruais, água e serviços sanitários; os riscos de sexo transacional e violência sexual; o alto risco de infecções de transmissão sexual; a impossibilidade de denunciar a violência sexual; a falta de acesso a serviços de SSR e pré-natais; e o conhecimento limitado sobre seus direitos sexuais e reprodutivos. Conclusões. Há uma necessidade significativa de melhorar as intervenções durante a fase anterior à migração para informar as mulheres e meninas migrantes sobre os riscos de SSR que podem encontrar e for- necer informações e recursos para apoiar seu SSR ao longo de sua viagem. Deve ser dada atenção especial para tentar chegar as meninas e mulheres que viajarão com traficantes de pessoas.

Sexual and reproductive health of migrant women and girls from the Northern Triangle of Central America / Salud sexual y reproductiva de las mujeres y niñas migrantes del Triángulo Norte de América Central / Saúde sexual e reprodutiva de mulheres e meninas migrantes do Triângulo Norte da América Central

ABSTRACT Objective. To understand the sexual and reproductive health (SRH) experiences of migrant women and girls of reproductive age (15-49 years) from the Northern Triangle of Central America (El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras) during their journey to the United States. Methods. A descriptive, qualitative research design included 39 in-depth interviews with migrant women and unaccompanied migrant girls from El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras from January to June 2022. Participants were recruited using purposive sampling. Interviews were transcribed, coded and analyzed using thematic analysis. Results. Migrant women and girls lack information and resources to manage their SRH during migration. The SRH of those traveling with smugglers is compromised due to their limited access to menstrual pads, water and sanitation services; the risks of transactional sex and sexual violence; the high risk of sexually transmitted infections; the inability to report sexual violence; the lack of access to SRH and prenatal services; and limited knowledge about their sexual and reproductive rights. Conclusions. There is a significant need for improved interventions during the predeparture phase of migration to inform migrant women and girls about the SRH risks they may encounter and to provide information and resources to support their SRH throughout their journey. Special attention should be directed towards trying to reach girls and women who will travel with smugglers.

RESUMEN Objetivo. Conocer las experiencias relacionadas con la salud sexual y reproductiva (SSR) de mujeres y niñas migrantes en edad reproductiva (15-49 años) del Triángulo Norte de América Central (El Salvador, Guatemala y Honduras) durante su viaje hacia Estados Unidos. Métodos. Se llevó a cabo una investigación descriptiva y cualitativa que incluyó 39 entrevistas en profundidad a mujeres y niñas no acompañadas migrantes de El Salvador, Guatemala y Honduras, entre enero y junio de 2022. El reclutamiento de las participantes se llevó a cabo mediante un muestreo intencional. Las entrevistas fueron transcritas, codificadas y analizadas mediante análisis temático. Resultados. Las mujeres y niñas migrantes carecen de información y recursos para cuidar su SSR durante la migración. La SSR de las personas que viajan con traficantes de personas se ve afectada por un acceso limitado a toallas menstruales, agua y servicios sanitarios; los riesgos del sexo transaccional y la violencia sexual; el alto riesgo de infecciones de transmisión sexual; la imposibilidad de denunciar la violencia sexual; la falta de acceso a servicios de SSR y prenatales; y el conocimiento limitado sobre sus derechos sexuales y reproductivos. Conclusiones. Existe una necesidad significativa de mejorar las intervenciones durante la fase previa a la migración para informar a las mujeres y niñas migrantes sobre los riesgos relacionados con la SSR que pueden encontrar y proporcionar información y recursos para apoyar su SSR a lo largo de su viaje. Debe prestarse especial atención a intentar llegar a las niñas y mujeres que viajarán con traficantes de personas.

RESUMO Objetivo. Conhecer as experiências de saúde sexual e reprodutiva (SSR) de mulheres e meninas migrantes na idade reprodutiva (15-49 anos) do Triângulo Norte da América Central (El Salvador, Guatemala e Honduras) durante sua viagem aos Estados Unidos. Método. Foi realizada uma pesquisa descritiva e qualitativa que incluiu 39 entrevistas em profundidade com mulheres e meninas não acompanhadas migrantes de El Salvador, Guatemala e Honduras, entre janeiro e junho de 2022. As entrevistas foram transcritas, codificadas e analisadas mediante análise temática. Resultados. As mulheres e meninas migrantes carecem de informações e recursos para cuidar seu SSR durante a migração. La SSR das pessoas que viajam com traficantes de pessoas é afetada pelo acesso limitado a absorventes menstruais, água e serviços sanitários; os riscos de sexo transacional e violência sexual; o alto risco de infecções de transmissão sexual; a impossibilidade de denunciar a violência sexual; a falta de acesso a serviços de SSR e pré-natais; e o conhecimento limitado sobre seus direitos sexuais e reprodutivos. Conclusões. Há uma necessidade significativa de melhorar as intervenções durante a fase anterior à migração para informar as mulheres e meninas migrantes sobre os riscos de SSR que podem encontrar e fornecer informações e recursos para apoiar seu SSR ao longo de sua viagem. Deve ser dada atenção especial para tentar chegar as meninas e mulheres que viajarão com traficantes de pessoas.

Interpersonal violence victimisation, HIV-related behaviours and STIs among adult, urban Indigenous and non-Indigenous gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men in Guatemala.

Gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men are disproportionately affected by HIV in Guatemala; interpersonal violence may increase behaviours that augment the risk of HIV in this group. Although 44% of Guatemalans identify as Indigenous, little information exists on the experiences of Indigenous sexual minority individuals. In this study, we sought to compare different forms of violence and HIV-related behaviours by Indigenous identity among gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men; and determine if associations between violence and HIV-related behaviours differed by Indigenous identity. We used cross-sectional survey data from 716 Spanish-speaking, adult men recruited from urban centres to examine the prevalence of and relationship between different forms of interpersonal violence and HIV-related behaviours using logistic regression analyses, including the moderating effect of Indigenous identity. In general, fewer Indigenous participants reported interpersonal violence victimisation and HIV-related behaviours compared to their non-Indigenous counterparts. In weighted multivariable analyses, non-Indigenous participants who reported physical and/or sexual violence were over five times as likely to report transactional sex (OR = 5.17, 95% CI 2.11-12.68, p < 0.001), but the relationship was not significant for Indigenous participants. Findings suggest that Indigenous sexual minority men have unique contexts and that additional strengths-based research is needed to ensure that actions and efforts to promote violence and HIV prevention meet their needs.

Intimate Partner Violence in Honduras: Ecological Correlates of Self-Reported Victimization and Fear of a Male Partner.

The experience of intimate partner violence (IPV) is influenced by individual, relationship, community, and societal-level factors, including the prevalence and acceptance of societal violence in which the victim lives. These factors transcend a woman's present circumstances and personal history and the gender and power relationships within her household. This is particularly relevant in Honduras, where a high level of IPV occurs within a traditionally patriarchal society and growing societal violence and crime. This study examines the factors-informed by a social ecological theoretical perspective-associated with the experience of IPV. We use data from the Honduras Demographic and Health Survey (ENDESA) 2011-2012 to estimate multilevel, multivariate models predicting the likelihood that a woman experiences emotional, physical, and/or sexual IPV and/or fear of her partner. Our models contain higher level contextual effects that capture regional variations in social violence and aggregated norms capturing acceptance of IPV. We find that a woman's likelihood of experiencing violence is related to individual, relationship, and household-level characteristics, including marital status, age at first cohabitation, employment status, violence within the parental home, women's accepting attitudes toward IPV, autonomy in decision-making, partner's use of alcohol, the nature of the relationship with her partner (i.e., living together or not), and educational and age differences with her partner. Notably, women living in more violent areas-measured by violence statistics and aggregate community-level norms regarding spouse beating-were more likely to experience IPV. These findings contribute to our understanding of the risk of IPV and to the evidence that can be used to identify the most vulnerable women and opportunities for intervention to prevent further victimization. By using an analytical methodology that reflects the complexity of factors that place women at risk for IPV, we can isolate, address, and advocate for changing circumstances that make Honduran women vulnerable to IPV.

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in acute respiratory distress syndrome due to influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 pneumonia. A single-center experience during the 2013-2014 season. / Oxigenação por membrana extracorpórea na síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo devido à pneumonia por influenza A (H1N1) pdm09. Experiência em um único centro durante a temporada de 2013-2014.

OBJECTIVE: This report aimed to describe the outcomes of the patients with severe H1N1 associated acute respiratory distress syndrome who were treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation therapy. METHODS: This retrospective review analyzed a single-center cohort of adult patients with H1N1-related acute respiratory distress syndrome who were managed with veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation during the winter of 2013/2014. RESULTS: A total of 10 patients received veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for H1N1 influenza between January 2013 and March 2014. Seven patients were transferred to our center for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation consideration (all within 72 hours of initiating mechanical ventilation). The median patient age was forty years, and 30% were female. The median arterial oxygen partial pressure to fraction of inspired oxygen ratio was 62.5, and the median RESP score was 6. Three patients received inhaled nitric oxide, and four patients were proned as rescue therapy before extracorporeal membrane oxygenation was initiated. The median duration of mechanical ventilation was twenty-two days (range, 14 - 32). The median length of stay in the intensive care unit was twenty-seven days (range, 14 - 39). The median hospital length of stay was 29.1 days (range, 16.0 - 46.9). Minor bleeding complications occurred in 6 of 10 patients. Eight of the ten patients survived to hospital discharge. CONCLUSION: The survivors were relatively young and discharged with good functional status (i.e., enhancing quality-adjusted life-years-saved). Our experience shows that even a relatively new extracorporeal membrane oxygenation program can play an important role in that capacity and provide excellent outcomes for the sickest patients.

OBJETIVO: Descrever os desfechos de pacientes com síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo associada à influenza subtipo H1N1 grave tratados com oxigenação por membrana extracorpórea. MÉTODOS: Trata-se de revisão retrospectiva de uma coorte de pacientes oriunda de um único centro, constituída por adultos com síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo relacionada com influenza subtipo H1N1 e tratados com oxigenação venovenosa por membrana extracorpórea durante a temporada de inverno no hemisfério norte de 2013/2014. RESULTADOS: Dez pacientes receberam oxigenação venovenosa por membrana extracorpórea para tratamento de influenza subtipo H1N1 entre janeiro de 2013 e março de 2014. Sete deles foram transferidos para nosso centro visando à utilização de oxigenação por membrana extracorpórea dentro de um período de 72 horas após o início da ventilação mecânica. A idade mediana foi de 40 anos, sendo 30% dos pacientes do sexo feminino. O valor mediano da proporção entre pressão parcial de oxigênio e fração inspirada de oxigênio foi de 62,5, sendo o escore RESP mediano de 6. Três pacientes receberam inalação de óxido nítrico e quatro utilizaram posição prona como tratamento de resgate antes de ser iniciada a oxigenação por membrana extracorpórea. A duração mediana da ventilação mecânica foi de 22 dias (variação de 14 - 32). O tempo mediano de permanência na unidade de terapia intensiva foi de 27 dias (variação de 14 - 39). O tempo mediano de permanência no hospital foi de 29,1 dias (variação de 16,0 - 46,9). Ocorreram complicações não importantes de sangramento em seis dos dez pacientes. Oito dos dez pacientes sobreviveram até a alta hospitalar. CONCLUSÃO: Os sobreviventes eram relativamente jovens e tiveram alta com boas condições funcionais, o que salienta os anos de vida ajustados pela qualidade que foram salvos. Nossa experiência demonstra que mesmo um programa ainda relativamente novo de oxigenação por membrana extracorpórea pode desempenhar um papel importante, e proporcionar resultados excelentes para os pacientes mais graves.

Oxigenação por membrana extracorpórea na síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo devido à pneumonia por influenza A (H1N1) pdm09. Experiência em um único centro durante a temporada de 2013-2014 / Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in acute respiratory distress syndrome due to influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 pneumonia. A single-center experience during the 2013-2014 season

RESUMO Objetivo: Descrever os desfechos de pacientes com síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo associada à influenza subtipo H1N1 grave tratados com oxigenação por membrana extracorpórea. Métodos: Trata-se de revisão retrospectiva de uma coorte de pacientes oriunda de um único centro, constituída por adultos com síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo relacionada com influenza subtipo H1N1 e tratados com oxigenação venovenosa por membrana extracorpórea durante a temporada de inverno no hemisfério norte de 2013/2014. Resultados: Dez pacientes receberam oxigenação venovenosa por membrana extracorpórea para tratamento de influenza subtipo H1N1 entre janeiro de 2013 e março de 2014. Sete deles foram transferidos para nosso centro visando à utilização de oxigenação por membrana extracorpórea dentro de um período de 72 horas após o início da ventilação mecânica. A idade mediana foi de 40 anos, sendo 30% dos pacientes do sexo feminino. O valor mediano da proporção entre pressão parcial de oxigênio e fração inspirada de oxigênio foi de 62,5, sendo o escore RESP mediano de 6. Três pacientes receberam inalação de óxido nítrico e quatro utilizaram posição prona como tratamento de resgate antes de ser iniciada a oxigenação por membrana extracorpórea. A duração mediana da ventilação mecânica foi de 22 dias (variação de 14 - 32). O tempo mediano de permanência na unidade de terapia intensiva foi de 27 dias (variação de 14 - 39). O tempo mediano de permanência no hospital foi de 29,1 dias (variação de 16,0 - 46,9). Ocorreram complicações não importantes de sangramento em seis dos dez pacientes. Oito dos dez pacientes sobreviveram até a alta hospitalar. Conclusão: Os sobreviventes eram relativamente jovens e tiveram alta com boas condições funcionais, o que salienta os anos de vida ajustados pela qualidade que foram salvos. Nossa experiência demonstra que mesmo um programa ainda relativamente novo de oxigenação por membrana extracorpórea pode desempenhar um papel importante, e proporcionar resultados excelentes para os pacientes mais graves.

ABSTRACT Objective: This report aimed to describe the outcomes of the patients with severe H1N1 associated acute respiratory distress syndrome who were treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation therapy. Methods: This retrospective review analyzed a single-center cohort of adult patients with H1N1-related acute respiratory distress syndrome who were managed with veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation during the winter of 2013/2014. Results: A total of 10 patients received veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for H1N1 influenza between January 2013 and March 2014. Seven patients were transferred to our center for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation consideration (all within 72 hours of initiating mechanical ventilation). The median patient age was forty years, and 30% were female. The median arterial oxygen partial pressure to fraction of inspired oxygen ratio was 62.5, and the median RESP score was 6. Three patients received inhaled nitric oxide, and four patients were proned as rescue therapy before extracorporeal membrane oxygenation was initiated. The median duration of mechanical ventilation was twenty-two days (range, 14 - 32). The median length of stay in the intensive care unit was twenty-seven days (range, 14 - 39). The median hospital length of stay was 29.1 days (range, 16.0 - 46.9). Minor bleeding complications occurred in 6 of 10 patients. Eight of the ten patients survived to hospital discharge. Conclusion: The survivors were relatively young and discharged with good functional status (i.e., enhancing quality-adjusted life-years-saved). Our experience shows that even a relatively new extracorporeal membrane oxygenation program can play an important role in that capacity and provide excellent outcomes for the sickest patients.

Effectiveness of Behavior Change Communications for Reducing Transmission Risks Among People Living with HIV in 6 Countries in Central America.

This first region-wide study (N = 2,818) aims to estimate prevalence of HIV-related risks (sexual behavior, HIV disclosure, number of sex partners, violence) and factors associated with these risks as well as evaluate a behavior change communications program targeted to PLHIV in 6 countries in Central America. After 2 years, the program achieved moderate coverage, with 21 % of the sample reporting exposure to interpersonal communications (IPC) and 52 % to mass media program components. The odds of condom use, HIV disclosure, and participation in a self-help group increased by 1.4-1.8 times with exposure to mass media. Exposure to IPC increased odds of condom use by 2.7 and participation in self-help groups by 4.4 times. In addition, being in HIV care or taking ART was associated with condom use and HIV-status disclosure. About 30 % experienced physical or sexual violence, and those who did were 4 times less likely to use condoms. Findings suggest that behavioral interventions for PLHIV can reduce HIV-transmission risks and increase access to care.

Effectiveness of a combination prevention strategy for HIV risk reduction with men who have sex with men in Central America: a mid-term evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Despite over a decade of research and programming, little evidence is available on effective strategies to reduce HIV risks among Central American men who have sex with men (MSM). The Pan-American Social Marketing Organization (PASMO) and partners are implementing a HIV Combination Prevention Program to provide key populations with an essential package of prevention interventions and services: 1) behavioral, including interpersonal communications, and online outreach; 2) biomedical services including HIV testing and counseling and screening for STIs; and 3) complementary support, including legal support and treatment for substance abuse. Two years into implementation, we evaluated this program's effectiveness for MSM by testing whether exposure to any or a combination of program components could reduce HIV risks. METHODS: PASMO surveyed MSM in 10 cities across Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama in 2012 using respondent-driven sampling. We used coarsened exact matching to create statistically equivalent groups of men exposed and non-exposed to the program, matching on education, measures of social interaction, and exposure to other HIV prevention programs. We estimated average treatment effects of each component and all combined to assess HIV testing and condom use outcomes, using multivariable logistic regression. We also linked survey data to routine service data to assess program coverage. RESULTS: Exposure to any program component was 32% in the study area (n = 3531). Only 2.8% of men received all components. Men exposed to both behavioral and biomedical components were more likely to use condoms and lubricant at last sex (AOR 3.05, 95% CI 1.08, 8.64), and those exposed to behavioral interventions were more likely to have tested for HIV in the past year (AOR 1.76, 95% CI 1.01, 3.10). CONCLUSIONS: PASMO's strategies to reach MSM with HIV prevention programming are still achieving low levels of population coverage, and few men are receiving the complete essential package. However, those reached are able to practice HIV prevention. Combination prevention is a promising approach in Central America, requiring expansion in coverage and intensity.

Is violence associated with increased risk behavior among MSM? Evidence from a population-based survey conducted across nine cities in Central America.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: There is a dearth of research examining the linkages between violence and HIV risk behavior among men who have sex with men (MSM), including those who identify as transgender women (TW), particularly in Central America where violence is widespread. In this paper, we use population-based survey results to independently examine the correlations between physical, emotional and sexual violence and HIV risk behavior among MSM populations in five countries in Central America. DESIGN: As part of USAID's Combination Prevention for HIV program in Central America, PASMO conducted population based surveys using respondent-driven sampling (RDS) in nine cities in Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Initial seeds were recruited using the following criteria: individuals who represented subgroups of MSM by self-identification (homosexual vs. heterosexual or bisexual vs. transgender), social economic strata, and by sex work practices. This study examines the association between violence and 1) HIV risk behaviors relevant to the study populations; 2) protective behaviors; and 3) reported STIs. Individualized RDS estimator weights for each outcome variable were calculated using RDSAT software, and logistic regression analysis was used to determine associations between different forms of violence and the outcome variables. RESULTS: MSM who experienced physical violence were more likely to be engaged in transactional sex (OR: 1.76 [1.42-2.18]), have multiple partners in the past 30 days (OR: 1.37 [1.09-1.71]), and have engaged in sex under the influence of alcohol or drugs (OR: 1.51 [1.24-1.83]). Both physical violence and psychological/verbal violence were also associated with reporting STI symptoms or diagnosis within the past 12 months (OR: 1.72 [1.34-2.21] and 1.80 [1.45-2.23]). The effects of violence on the outcomes were observed after controlling for other risk factors. Transgender women were 3.9 times more likely to report engaging in transactional sex. Respondents who were heterosexual, bisexual, or transgender were also more likely to both report multiple partnerships (OR: 1.44 [1.07-1.96], 1.99 [1.67-2.38], 1.79 [1.37-2.33], respectively) and more likely to report engaging in sex under the influence of alcohol or drugs (OR: 1.52 [1.15-2.01], 1.38 [1.17-1.63], 1.47 [1.16-1.87], respectively), as compared to those identifying as homosexual. CONCLUSION: Violence experienced by MSM and TW is widespread in Central America. The experience of violence is shown in this study to be independently associated with risk behaviors for HIV infections. Further research and studies are needed to identify the effects violence has on HIV risk behavior among this under-researched population to improve targeted HIV prevention interventions.