High infectivity and waterborne transmission of seagrass wasting disease.

Pathogen transmission pathways are fundamental to understanding the epidemiology of infectious diseases yet are challenging to estimate in nature, particularly in the ocean. Seagrass wasting disease (SWD), caused by Labyrinthula zosterae, impacts seagrass beds worldwide and is thought to be a contributing factor to declines; however, little is known about natural transmission of SWD. In this study, we used field and laboratory experiments to test SWD transmission pathways and temperature sensitivity. To test transmission modes in nature, we conducted three field experiments out-planting sentinel Zostera marina shoots within and adjacent to natural Z. marina beds (20 ± 5 and 110 ± 5 m from bed edge). Infection rates and severity did not differ among outplant locations, implicating waterborne transmission. The infectious dose of L. zosterae through waterborne exposure was assessed in a controlled laboratory experiment. The dose to 50% disease was 6 cells ml-1 and did not differ with the temperatures tested (7.5°C and 15°C). Our results show L. zosterae is transmissible through water without direct contact with infected plants. Understanding the transmission dynamics of this disease in the context of changing ocean conditions will improve Z. marina protection and restoration in critical coastal habitats worldwide.

Unraveling concordant and varying responses of oyster species to Ostreid Herpesvirus 1 variants.

The Ostreid herpesvirus 1 (OsHV-1) and variants, particularly the microvariants (µVars), are virulent and economically devastating viruses impacting oysters. Since 2008 OsHV-1 µVars have emerged rapidly having particularly damaging effects on aquaculture industries in Europe, Australia and New Zealand. We conducted field trials in Tomales Bay (TB), California where a non-µVar strain of OsHV-1 is established and demonstrated differential mortality of naturally exposed seed of three stocks of Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, and one stock of Kumamoto oyster, C. sikamea. Oysters exposed in the field experienced differential mortality that ranged from 64 to 99% in Pacific oysters (Tasmania>Midori = Willapa stocks), which was much higher than that of Kumamoto oysters (25%). Injection trials were done using French (FRA) and Australian (AUS) µVars with the same oyster stocks as planted in the field and, in addition, two stocks of the Eastern oyster, C. virginica. No mortality was observed in control oysters. One C. virginica stock suffered ~10% mortality when challenged with both µVars tested. Two Pacific oyster stocks suffered 75 to 90% mortality, while one C. gigas stock had relatively low mortality when challenged with the AUS µVar (~22%) and higher mortality when challenged with the French µVar (~72%). Conversely, C. sikamea suffered lower mortality when challenged with the French µVar (~22%) and higher mortality with the AUS µVar (~44%). All dead oysters had higher viral loads (~1000×) as measured by quantitative PCR relative to those that survived. However, some survivors had high levels of virus, including those from species with lower mortality. Field mortality in TB correlated with laboratory mortality of the FRA µVar (69% correlation) but not with that of the AUS µVar, which also lacked correlation with the FRA µVar. The variation in response to OsHV-1 variant challenges by oyster species and stocks demonstrates the need for empirical assessment of multiple OsHV-1 variants.

First comparison of French and Australian OsHV-1 µvars by bath exposure.

Economically devastating mortality events of farmed and wild shellfish due to infectious disease have been reported globally. Currently, one of the most significant disease threats to Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas culture is the ostreid herpesvirus 1 (OsHV-1), in particular the emerging OsHV-1 microvariant genotypes. OsHV-1 microvariants (OsHV-1 µvars) are spreading globally, and concern is high among growers in areas unaffected by OsHV-1. No study to date has compared the relative virulence among variants. We provide the first challenge study comparing survival of naïve juvenile Pacific oysters exposed to OsHV-1 µvars from Australia (AUS µvar) and France (FRA µvar). Oysters challenged with OsHV-1 µvars had low survival (2.5% exposed to AUS µvar and 10% to FRA µvar), and high viral copy number as compared to control oysters (100% survival and no virus detected). As our study was conducted in a quarantine facility located ~320 km from the ocean, we also compared the virulence of OsHV-1 µvars using artificial seawater made from either facility tap water (3782 µmol kg-1 seawater total alkalinity) or purchased distilled water (2003 µmol kg-1). Although no differences in survival or viral copy number were detected in oysters exposed to seawater made using tap or distilled water, more OsHV-1 was detected in tanks containing the lower-alkalinity seawater, indicating that water quality may be important for virus transmission, as it may influence the duration of viral viability outside of the host.