A hybrid structure based on silk fibroin/PVA nanofibers and alginate/gum tragacanth hydrogel embedded with cardamom extract.

Hybrid structures made of natural-synthetic polymers have been interested due to high biological features combining promising physical-mechanical properties. In this research, a hybrid dressing consisting of a silk fibroin (SF)/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) nanofibers and sodium alginate (SA)/gum tragacanth (GT) hydrogel incorporating cardamom extract as an antibacterial agent was prepared. Accordingly, SF was extracted from cocoons followed by electrospinning in blend form with PVA (SF/PVA ratio: 1:1) under the voltage of 18 kV and the distances of 15 cm. The SEM images confirmed the formation of uniform, bead free fibers with the average diameter of 199 ± 28 nm. FTIR and XRD results revealed the successful extraction of SF and preparation of mixed fibrous mats. Next, cardamom oil extract-loaded SA/GT hydrogel was prepared and the nanofibrous structure was placed on the surface of hydrogel. SEM analysis depicted the uniform morphology of hybrid structure with desirable matching between two layers. TGA analysis showed desired thermal stability. The swelling ratio was found to be 1251% after 24 h for the hybrid structure and the drug was released without any initial burst. MTT assay and cell attachment results showed favorable biocompatibility and cell proliferation on samples containing extract, and antibacterial activity values of 85.35% against S. aureus and 75% against E. coli were obtained as well. The results showed that the engineered hybrid nanofibrous-hydrogel film structure incorporating cardamom oil extract could be a promising candidate for wound healing applications and skin tissue engineering.

Exploring the effects of vasoactive constituents in large cardamom: implications for the anti-hypertensive effect via eNOS coupling pathway - an in-vitro study in rat endothelial cells.

Endothelial dysfunction, linked to reduced eNOS expression and nitric oxide (NO) availability, contributes to cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Large cardamom exhibits antihypertensive effects by augmenting NO levels and antioxidant activity. To decipher its mechanisms, selected constituents were docked with eNOS-associated target genes such as GTP cyclohydrolase I (GTPCH-1) and (dihydrofolate reductase [DHFR]). Endothelial damage induced by L-NAME and fructose was countered by assessing nitric oxide metabolites (NOx), tetrahydrobipterin (BH4 levels), GCH-I expression and super oxide dismutase (SOD) activity after constituent incubation. Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and petunidin-3-O-glucoside notably restored impaired vascular markers in both models. These phytoconstituents are likely to activate GCH-BH4-eNOS pathways, upregulating SOD and NO expression, maintaining endothelial integrity. Large cardamom's antihypertensive effects may stem from these components, synergistically enhancing endothelial NO release via the eNOS pathway.

Cardamom consumption may improve cardiovascular metabolic biomarkers in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

The bioactive compounds in cardamom have been found to enhance cardiovascular health by improving blood lipids and inflammation. We hypothesized that cardamom consumption might ameliorate cardiovascular metabolic biomarkers in adults; however, there is still debate regarding its impact on cardiac metabolism. This research was therefore designed to determine if cardamom consumption had a favorable impact on lipid profiles, inflammatory markers, and oxidative stress indices as they related to cardiovascular diseases. A comprehensive search was conducted through PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library on July 4, 2023. Using a random-effects model pooled the weighted mean difference (WMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI). The final 12 trials containing 989 participants were included. The results illustrated that cardamom consumption could improve total cholesterol (WMD = -8.56 mg/dL; 95% CI, -14.90 to -2.22), triglycerides (WMD = -14.09 mg/dL; 95% CI, -24.01 to -4.17), high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (WMD = -1.01 ng/mL; 95% CI, -1.81 to -0.22), and interleukin-6 (WMD = -1.81 pg/mL; 95% CI, -3.06 to -0.56). However, it did not have significant influences on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and some indicators of oxidative stress. In conclusion, cardamom consumption can improve specific cardiovascular metabolic biomarkers and potentially confer protective effects on cardiovascular health. However, more large-scale clinical research with better designs would further validate the findings, which will offer substantial evidence of cardamom as nutritional and functional products.

The favorable impacts of cardamom on related complications of diabetes: A comprehensive literature systematic review.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Complementary and alternative medicine plays an increasing role in preventing, and regulatory, complications associated with diabetes. There are plenty of polyphenolic compounds found in Elettaria cardamomum (Cardamom) such as luteolin, limonene, pelargonidin, caffeic acid, kaempferol, gallic acid, and quercetin which can be used in many metabolic diseases. METHOD: The objective of this systematic review was to appraise evidence from clinical and in vivo studies on the effects of cardamom on inflammation, blood glucose, oxidative stress and dyslipidemia of diabetes mellitus. According to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statements, the present study was carried out. Studies were conducted by searching databases such as EMBASE, Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, web of sciences, and Cochrane Library from the commencement until April 2022. RESULTS: All available human and animal studies examining the effects of cardamom on diabetes were published in the form of English articles. Finally, only 14 of the 241 articles met the criteria for analysis. Of the 14 articles, 8 were in vivo studies, and 6 were clinical trial studies. Most studies have indicated the beneficial effects of cardamom on insulin resistance, oxidative stress and inflammation. Cardamom also improved dyslipidemia, but had no substantial effect on weight loss. CONCLUSION: According to most studies, cardamom supplementation enhanced antioxidant enzyme production and activity in diabetes mellitus and decreased oxidative stress and inflammatory factors. Despite this, the exact mechanism of the disease needs to be identified through more clinical trials.

Effect of cardamom consumption on inflammation and blood pressure in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.

Cardamom has the potential to offer anti-inflammatory and antihypertensive advantages, but the findings from clinical trials have been inconsistent. To address this knowledge gap, the present systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to evaluate the anti-inflammatory and antihypertensive effects of cardamom in adults. We systematically searched databases including PubMed, Scopus, and ISI Web of Sciences, for papers published up to October 2022 to identify clinical studies. Eight eligible studies were included in the meta-analysis. A fixed model was used to estimate weighted mean difference (WMD), standardized mean difference (SMD), and 95% confidence interval (95% CI). The results showed that cardamom significantly reduced the levels of inflammatory factors, including hs-CRP (SMD: -0.60 mg/dL; 95% CI: -0.78 to 0.42), IL-6 (WMD: -1.25 mg/dL; 95% CI: -1.48 to -1.03), TNF-α (WMD: -2.10 kg; 95% CI: -2.36 to -1.84, p < .001), and measures of systolic (WMD: -0.54 mmHg, 95% CI: -0.88, -0.19, p = .002) and diastolic (WMD: -0.90 mmHg; 95% CI: -1.07 to -0.73) blood pressure. The current meta-analysis showed that cardamom can help reduce inflammation and improve blood pressure. However, due to the limited number of studies, caution must be exercised when interpreting the current results.

Black cardamom (Amomum subulatum) extract improves growth potential, antioxidant status, immune parameters and response to crowding stress in Catla catla.

Natural herbs are excellent alternatives to synthetic compounds to enhance the growth performance and health status of fish. This study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of black cardamom (Amomum subulatum) extract (BCE) as an herbal supplement in improving the growth, antioxidant status, haematology, and serum biochemistry of Catla catla. The acclimatized fish (N = 900; average initial weight = 14.44 ± 0.33 g) were allocated into five groups (60 fish/group in triplicate) in hapas (4 × 2 × 2.5 ft) and provided with feed containing 0 (control), 0.5, 1, 2 and 4 g/kg BCE for 90 days before being subjected to 8 days of crowding stress. After 90 days, significantly higher feed utilization and growth were observed in all BCE-fed treatments compared to the control; however, the maximum values of these parameters were noted in the 2 g/kg BCE-fed treatment. Moreover, the BCE-fed groups exhibited a significant increase in antioxidant indices (glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase and catalase), with a significant reduction in malondialdehyde levels, indicating a higher antioxidant capacity compared to the control. Significant improvements in haematological parameters, such as an increase in haematocrit, haemoglobin and red blood cells and a decrease in white blood cells, were observed in BCE-fed treatments compared to the control. Furthermore, BCE-fed groups showed a significant decrease in serum glucose, cortisol and triglycerides, while total protein, globulin and albumin levels were significantly higher compared with the control. During the feeding trial of 90 days, no mortality was observed; however, the lowest cumulative mortality was noted in the 2 g/kg BCE group after crowding stress of 8 days. In conclusion, the use of BCE in feed can enhance the growth performance, antioxidant status, haematology, and serum biochemistry of C. catla and improve the resistance against crowding stress. The optimum levels of BCE for C. catla were estimated based on weight gain % (1.78 g/kg; R2 = 0.97), feed conversion ratio (1.65 g/kg; R2 = 0.98), MDA content (1.66 g/kg; R2 = 0.93) and serum lysozyme activity (1.72 g/kg; R2 = 1) using broken-line regression analysis.

SIRT1/SREBPs-mediated regulation of lipid metabolism.

Sirtuins, also called silent information regulator 2, are enzymes that rely on nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to function as histone deacetylases. Further investigation is warranted to explore the advantageous impacts of Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), a constituent of the sirtuin group, on lipid metabolism, in addition to its well-researched involvement in extending lifespan. The regulation of gene expression has been extensively linked to SIRT1. Sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) is a substrate of SIRT1 that has attracted significant interest due to its role in multiple cellular processes including cell cycle regulation, DNA damage repair, and metabolic functions. Hence, the objective of this analysis was to investigate and elucidate the correlation between SIRT1 and SREBPs, as well as assess the contribution of SIRT1/SREBPs in mitigating lipid metabolism dysfunction. The objective of this research was to investigate whether SIRT1 and SREBPs could be utilized as viable targets for therapeutic intervention in managing complications associated with diabetes.

Extraction of Active Compounds from Mixtures of Hemp (Cannabis sativa) with Plants of the Zingiberaceae Family.

Hemp is probably one of the most studied plants for its health-promoting properties, with countless documented and patented extraction methods, but literature is scarce on the simultaneous extraction of mixture of raw materials. Hemp, along with other plant materials, could represent a potentially highly valuable source material with resulting reciprocal effects. In this study, hemp (Cannabis sativa) and three members of the Zingiberaceae family, ginger (Zingiber officinale), turmeric (Curcuma longa), and cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum), were extracted simultaneously, and their bioactive component values were investigated. Two extraction methods were used, namely ultrasound-assisted extraction with ethanol and supercritical fluid extraction with carbon dioxide. First, extracts were obtained from separate plant materials. Then, hemp was extracted in combination with ginger, turmeric, and cardamom in a 1:1 ratio. The extracts obtained were evaluated for their antioxidant activity and total phenolic content using UV/VIS spectrophotometry; cannabinoid content, 6-gingerol, and 6-shogaol were measured using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS); volatile components such as 1,8-cineole, alpha-terpinyl acetate, linalool, and aR-turmerone were measured using gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC/MS).

Protective effects of cardamom aqueous extract against tamoxifen-induced pancreatic injury in female rats.

Tamoxifen (TAM) is a commonly used drug for breast cancer treatment. Although effective, TAM has deleterious effects on many organs. The toxic effects of TAM on the pancreas and the underlying mechanisms however, have not fully investigated. In the present study, we investigated the effects of TAM on the pancreatic tissue in female rats. We also examined whether cardamom aqueous extract (CAE) protects against TAM-induced pancreatic injury. TAM-intoxicated rats were injected with 45 mg/kg of TAM for 10 days, whereas rats in the CAE-treated group were administered 10 mL/kg of CAE for 20 days, starting 10 days prior to TAM administration. Treatment with TAM resulted in severe degeneration of the pancreatic acini and marked increases in the serum levels of pancreatic lipase, α-amylase, glucose, fatty acids and triglycerides along with decreased insulin serum levels. TAM led to oxidative stress as evident from a significant increase in the pancreatic levels of lipid peroxides and nitric oxide along with the depletion of reduced glutathione, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase. Moreover, inflammation was indicated by a significant increase in tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 levels, enhanced expression of the macrophage recruitment marker; CD68 as well as up-regulated protein levels of toll-like receptor 4 and nuclear factor kappa B and increased p-p38/MAPK ratio; which are important signals in the production of inflammatory cytokines. TAM also markedly increased the pancreatic levels of caspase-3 and BAX reflecting its apoptotic effects. The CAE treatment ameliorated all the biochemical and histological changes induced by TAM. The present study revealed, for the first time, that TAM has toxic effects on the pancreatic tissue through oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptotic effects. The present study also provides evidence that CAE exerts cytoprotective effects against these deleterious effects induced by TAM in the pancreatic tissue. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s43188-023-00198-w.

Complete genome sequence of a divergent strain of cardamom mosaic virus.

Cardamom mosaic virus (CdMV; genus Macluravirus), which causes mosaic (katte) disease in cardamom, is a highly variable member of the family Potyviridae. So far, the complete genome sequence of one isolate from Karnataka (KS) has been reported. In the present study, we determined the complete genome sequence of a CdMV isolate from Kerala (KI) and the complete CP gene sequences of nine isolates of CdMV from Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, India. The complete genome of CdMV (KI) consists of 8255 nucleotides (nt) with two open reading frames (ORFs). The large ORF, potentially coding for a polyprotein of 2638 amino acids (aa), is further processed into nine mature proteins at eight cleavage sites. The second ORF, PIPO (pretty interesting Potyviridae ORF) starting with a C(A)6 motif, encodes a small protein of 56 aa. The viral genome contains an additional 13 nt in the 5' untranslated region (UTR) and 6 nt in the CP gene, as well as a deletion of 13 nt at the 3' UTR in comparison to the KS isolate of CdMV. The complete viral genome and polyprotein share 76% and 85% sequence identity with the KS isolate of CdMV, indicating that the present isolate is highly divergent from the KS isolate. Sequencing and analysis of the CP sequences of 16 CdMV isolates from different regions revealed high heterogeneity among them, suggesting that they should be considered members of more than one species.

A Novel spice-antioxidant-based nano-vehicle as a putative green alternative of synthetic AChE inhibitor drugs.

The present treatment for Alzheimer's disease (AD) involves well known synthetic acetylcholine esterase (AChE) inhibitor drugs which besides having short duration of action also have deleterious impact on human health. Therefore, there is a need for natural plant-based biomolecule(s) with potential AChE inhibition activity (ies). The aim of the work is to design a spice-based nano-vehicle as a novel green alternative of synthetic AD drugs by nanoencapsulating a solvent-less supercritical CO2 extract of small cardamom seeds (SCE) having a synergistic consortium of five antioxidant molecules, using polyethylene glycol and emulsifiers, selected based on Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, and Toxicity (ADMET) analyses. Ellman's assay and enzyme inhibition kinetics of the antioxidant molecules as well as the extract and its nanoliposomal formulation (SCE-NL) were performed, followed by rigorous molecular docking and dynamics studies using MM-PBSA and umbrella sampling. The antioxidants exhibited significant AChE inhibition in vitro, individually with 1, 8-cineole having the least IC50 value of 65.53 ± 0.05 µg/mL. . Although SCE-NL had higher IC50 value (575.67 ± 0.5 µg/mL) vis-à-vis that of rivastigmine (67.52 ± 0.02 µg/mL), it is safer for usage being 'green'.The Lineweaver-Burk plots (Vmax ∼1.04 mM/min) revealed competitive mode(s) of inhibition of AChE with each of these antioxidants. Binding energy analyses suggested very good binding free energies and stable docking/binding complexes (between the antioxidants and AChE). This study has delivered a nanoliposomal vehicle of food antioxidants as a putative 'green' alternative of synthetic AChE inhibitor drugs.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Protective Role of Phenolic Compounds from Whole Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton) against LPS-Induced Inflammation in Colon and Macrophage Cells.

The chemical profiling of phenolic and terpenoid compounds in whole cardamom, skin, and seeds (Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton) showed 11 phenolics and 16 terpenoids, many of which are reported for the first time. Herein, we report the anti-inflammatory properties of a methanolic extract of whole cardamom in colon and macrophage cells stimulated with an inflammatory bacteria lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The results show that cardamom extracts lowered the expression of pro-inflammatory genes NFkß, TNFα, IL-6, and COX2 in colon cells by reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) while not affecting LXRα. In macrophages, cardamom extracts lowered the expression of pro-inflammatory genes NFkß, TNFα, IL-6, and COX2 and decreased NO levels through a reduction in ROS and enhanced gene expression of nuclear receptors LXRα and PPARγ. The cardamom extracts in a range of 200-800 µg/mL did not show toxicity effects in colon or macrophage cells. The whole-cardamom methanolic extracts contained high levels of phenolics compounds (e.g., protocatechuic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, and 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid, among others) and are likely responsible for the anti-inflammatory and multifunctional effects observed in this study. The generated information suggests that cardamom may play a protective role against low-grade inflammation that can be the basis of future in vivo studies using mice models of inflammation and associated chronic diseases.

Controlled Size Oils Based Green Fabrication of Silver Nanoparticles for Photocatalytic and Antimicrobial Application.

The particle size at the nanometric level allows the manifestation of remarkable properties, chiefly due to changes in surface-to-volume ratio. This study is attributed to the novel green synthesis of nano silver by using essential oils as a capping and reducing agent. Clove oil, cinnamon oil, and cardamom oil were selected for the eco-friendly and low-cost fabrication of silver nanoparticles. The prepared nanoparticles were characterized by photoluminescence spectroscopy, FT-IR spectroscopy, X-Ray diffraction, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, dynamic laser light scattering, thermogravimetric analysis, and transmission electron microscopy. It was found that samples prepared by using cinnamon oil (20 nm) and cardamom oil (12 nm) had smaller particle sizes as compared to those synthesized by using clove oil (45 nm). All the prepared samples exhibited very strong antimicrobial activities with a clear zone of inhibition (6-24 mm) against Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Candida albicans. Very resilient photocatalytic activities of the samples were observed against Allura red and fast green dyes. It was concluded that the cinnamon oil-based system is the best size reducer and size homogenizer (less chances of agglomeration) as compared to clove oil and cardamom oil (more chances of agglomeration) for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles.

Antioxidant Activity in Extracts from Zingiberaceae Family: Cardamom, Turmeric, and Ginger.

An increase in life expectancy leads to a greater impact of chronic non-communicable diseases. This is even more remarkable in elder populations, to whom these become main determinants of health status, affecting mental and physical health, quality of life, and autonomy. Disease appearance is closely related to the levels of cellular oxidation, pointing out the importance of including foods in one's diet that can prevent oxidative stress. Previous studies and clinical data suggest that some plant-based products can slow and reduce the cellular degradation associated with aging and age-related diseases. Many plants from one family present several applications that range from the food to the pharmaceutical industry due to their characteristic flavor and scents. The Zingiberaceae family, which includes cardamom, turmeric, and ginger, has bioactive compounds with antioxidant activities. They also have anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, and antiemetic activities and properties that help prevent cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. These products are abundant sources of chemical substances, such as alkaloids, carbohydrates, proteins, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and diarylheptanoids. The main bioactive compounds found in this family (cardamom, turmeric, and ginger) are 1,8-cineole, α-terpinyl acetate, ß-turmerone, and α-zingiberene. The present review gathers evidence surrounding the effects of dietary intake of extracts of the Zingiberaceae family and their underlying mechanisms of action. These extracts could be an adjuvant treatment for oxidative-stress-related pathologies. However, the bioavailability of these compounds needs to be optimized, and further research is needed to determine appropriate concentrations and their antioxidant effects in the body.

Small cardamom genome: development and utilization of microsatellite markers from a draft genome sequence of Elettaria cardamomum Maton.

Small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton), the queen of spices, is the third most expensive spice in the world after saffron and vanilla, valued highly for its aroma and taste. This perennial herbaceous plant is a native of coastal parts of Southern India and displays a significant amount of morphological diversity. Its genetic potential has not been exploited due to lack of genomic resources limiting our understanding of the genome and important metabolic pathways which give it the economic advantage in the spice industry. Here, we report upon the de novo assembled, draft whole genome sequence of cardamom variety, Njallani Green Gold. We used a hybrid assembly strategy using the reads from the Oxford Nanopore, Illumina and 10x Genomics GemCode sequencing chemistries. The assembled genome length was 1.06 Gb (gigabases) which is close to the estimated genome size of cardamom. More than 75% of the genome was captured in 8000 scaffolds with a N50 of 0.15 Mb. The genome appears to have a high repeat content and 68055 gene models were predicted. The genome is close to Musa species and displays an expansion and contraction in different gene families. The draft assembly was used for in silico mining of simple sequence repeats (SSRs). A total of 2,50,571 SSRs were identified of which 2,18,270 were perfect SSRs and 32,301 were compound SSRs. Among the perfect SSRs, trinucleotides were most abundant (1,25,329) and hexanucleotide repeats appear least (2,380). From the 2,50,571 SSRs mined, 2,27,808 primer pairs were designed based on flanking sequence information. Wet lab validation was performed for 246 SSR loci and based on their amplification profiles, 60 SSR markers were used for diversity analysis of a set of 60 diverse cardamom accessions. The average number of alleles detected per locus were 14.57 with a minimum of 4 and maximum of 30 alleles. Population structure analysis revealed the presence of high degree of admixtures which could primarily be due to cross-pollination prevalent in this species. The SSR markers identified would help in the development of gene or trait-linked markers which can be subsequently used for marker-assisted breeding for crop improvement in cardamom. The information on utilization of the SSR loci for generation of markers has been developed into a public database, 'cardamomSSRdb' that is freely available for use by the cardamom community.

Environmental, Occupational, and Demographic Risk Factors for Clinical Scrub Typhus, Bhutan.

Underdiagnosis and underreporting of scrub typhus has increasingly affected public health in Bhutan since its initial detection in 2008. Identifying scrub typhus risk factors would support early diagnosis and treatment for this nonspecific febrile disease, reducing the incidence of potentially fatal complications. We conducted a hospital-based, case‒control study during October‒December 2015 in 11 scrub typhus‒prone districts. We identified harvesting cardamom as the major risk factor (odds ratio 1,519; p<0.001); other factors were traditional housing, largely caused by an outside toilet location, as well as owning a goat and frequently sitting on grass. Harvesting vegetables, herding cattle in the forest, and female sex were protective. Age had a nonlinear effect; children and the elderly were more likely to seek treatment for clinical scrub typhus. This study has informed public health policies and awareness programs for healthcare workers through development of National Guidelines for Prevention, Treatment and Control of Scrub Typhus in Bhutan.

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton) Seeds Intake Increases Energy Expenditure and Reduces Fat Mass in Mice by Modulating Neural Circuits That Regulate Adipose Tissue Lipolysis and Mitochondrial Oxidative Metabolism in Liver and Skeletal Muscle.

Cardamom seed (Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton; EC) is consumed in several countries worldwide and is considered a nutraceutical spice since it exerts antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and metabolic activities. In obese individuals, EC intake also favors weight loss. However, the mechanism for these effects has not been studied. Here, we identified that EC modulates the neuroendocrine axis that regulates food intake, body weight, mitochondrial activity, and energy expenditure in mice. We fed C57BL/6 mice with diets containing 3%, 6%, or 12% EC or a control diet for 14 weeks. Mice fed the EC-containing diets gained less weight than control, despite slightly higher food intake. The lower final weight of EC-fed mice was due to lesser fat content but increased lean mass than control. EC intake increased lipolysis in subcutaneous adipose tissue, and reduced adipocyte size in subcutaneous, visceral, and brown adipose tissues. EC intake also prevented lipid droplet accumulation and increased mitochondrial content in skeletal muscle and liver. Accordingly, fasting and postprandial oxygen consumption, as well as fasting fat oxidation and postprandial glucose utilization were higher in mice fed with EC than in control. EC intake reduced proopiomelanocortin (POMC) mRNA content in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus, without an impact on neuropeptide Y (NPY) mRNA. These neuropeptides control food intake but also influence the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axes. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) mRNA expression in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and circulating triiodothyronine (T3) were lower in EC-fed mice than in control. This effect was linked with decreased circulating corticosterone and weight of adrenal glands. Our results indicate that EC modulates appetite, increases lipolysis in adipose tissue and mitochondrial oxidative metabolism in liver and skeletal muscle, leading to increased energy expenditure and lower body fat mass. These metabolic effects were ascribable to the modulation of the HPT and HPA axes. LC-MS profiling of EC found 11 phenolic compounds among which protocatechuic acid (23.8%), caffeic acid (21.06%) and syringic acid (29.25%) were the most abundant, while GC-MS profiling showed 16 terpenoids among which costunolide (68.11%), ambrial (5.3%) and cis-α-terpineol (7.99%) were identified. Extrapolation of mice-to-human EC intake was performed using the body surface area normalization equation which gave a conversion equivalent daily human intake dose of 76.9-308.4 mg bioactives for an adult of 60 kg that can be obtained from 14.5-58.3 g of cardamom seeds (18.5-74.2 g cardamom pods). These results support further exploration of EC as a coadjuvant in clinical practice.

Cardamom oil ameliorates behavioral and neuropathological disorders in a rat model of depression induced by reserpine.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Depression is a public health problem. Despite the availability of treatment options, its prevalence is increasing. A high rate of treatment failure is often reported, along with considerable side effects associated with synthetic antidepressants. Therefore, developing effective and safe antidepressants from traditional herbs or natural products as an alternative strategy is warranted to avoid side effects and increase drug efficacy. In traditional medicine, cardamom has traditionally been used to treat conditions like asthma, tooth and gum infections, cataracts, nausea, diarrhea, and even depression and anxiety as well as some problems with the heart, kidneys, and digestive system. AIM OF THE STUDY: The current study aimed to evaluate the antidepressant activity of cardamom oil in a rat model of depression induced by reserpine and compare it with the activity of the antidepressant drug fluoxetine. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Depression-like symptoms were induced in male rats by daily i. p. injection of reserpine (0.2 mg/kg/d for 15 d followed by 0.1 mg/kg/d for 21 d to maintain the depressive state), and the rats were treated with cardamom oil (oral dose = 200 mg/kg/d) for 21 d along with the maintenance dose of reserpine. We performed behavioral tests (forced swimming test and open-field test) and evaluated biochemical markers of depression. RESULTS: Our findings revealed that cardamom oil attenuated depression-like symptoms in reserpine-injected rats by improving the behavioral changes measured by the forced swimming test and the locomotor activities measured by the open-field test. In reserpine-injected rats, cardamom oil exerted antidepressant-like effects by modulating lower levels of brain monoamine neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine), GSH, and higher oxido-nitrosative stress parameters (malondialdehyde and nitric oxide). Moreover, cardamom oil alleviated depression-like behaviors by lowering monoamine oxidase activity and raising the activities of Na+/K+-ATPase and acetylcholinesterase and levels of a brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the cortex and hippocampus. CONCLUSION: We recommend the use of cardamom oil as a safe and reliable treatment or an adjuvant for preventing depression-like symptoms in patients suffering from depression.