Global health in the making: health demonstration areas in Europe, 1950s and 1960s / Construcción de la salud global: zonas de demostración sanitaria en Europa, décadas de 1950 y 1960

Abstract Global health is a multifaceted concept that entails the standardization of procedures in healthcare domains in accordance with a doctrine agreed upon by experts. This essay focus on the creation of health demonstration areas by the World Health Organisation (WHO) to establish core nodes for integrated state-of-the-art health services. It explores the origins, theoretical basis and aims of this technique and reviews several European experiences during the first 20 years of the WHO. Particular attention is paid to the historical importance of technical cooperative activities carried out by the WHO in regard to the implementation of health services, a long-term strategic move that contributed to the thematic upsurge of primary health care in the late 1970s.

Resumen Salud global es un concepto complejo que implica la normalización de los procedimientos de actuación sanitaria siguiendo una doctrina acordada por expertos. Este trabajo se ocupa del establecimiento de zonas de demostración sanitaria por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) a modo de núcleos de modernos servicios sanitarios integrados. Revisa el origen, las bases téoricas y los objetivos de esta técnica y examina diversas experiencias europeas durante los primeros veinte años de la OMS. Pone de manifiesto la importancia histórica de las actividades de cooperación técnica de la OMS en la puesta en marcha de servicios sanitarios, una estrategia de largo plazo que ayuda a entender la aparición de la atención primaria de salud a finales de la década de 1970.

Zeus' pain: did he experience a thunderclap headache? / A dor de Zeus: fora ele acometido por uma cefaleia em trovoada?

Zeus is known as the king of the gods and god of the sky. His attributes are lightning and thunder and he is often depicted about to hurl them. According to Greek mythology, Zeus molested the titan Metis and decided to swallow her when she was pregnant, which resulted in an excruciating headache, only relieved after a craniotomy performed using Hephaestus' axe. The result of this procedure was the birth of Athena, Zeus' daughter. We conducted a combined analysis of some writings such as the classical mythological poem Theogony by Hesiod, and some other books that examine and retell myths and legends of ancient Greece, with medical papers on this topic, trying to characterize Zeus' headache. Would it be possible to fit Zeus' headache into the group of thunderclap headaches?

Zeus é conhecido como rei dos deuses e deus dos céus. Tem como atributos os raios e os trovões e é frequentemente representado prestes a lançá-los. De acordo com a mitologia grega, Zeus molestou a titã Métis e resolveu engoli-la grávida, o que resultou em uma cefaleia excruciante, apenas aliviada após uma craniotomia realizada por meio do machado de Hefesto. O fruto deste procedimento foi Atena, filha de Zeus. Realizamos uma análise combinada utilizando escritos mitológicos clássicos como o poema Teogonia de Hesíodo, além de outros livros sobre mitologia e artigos médicos que tratam deste tema, para tentar caracterizar a cefaleia de Zeus. Seria possível enquadrar a cefaleia de Zeus no grupo das cefaleias em trovoada?

A new genus of Pelecotominae from Mexico, with notes on the genera Clinops and Scotoscopus and the description of new species (Coleoptera, Ripiphoridae).

Taxonomic notes are provided on species of the uncommonly encountered ripiphorid subfamily Pelecotominae. Zapotecotomasumichrasti gen. et sp. nov., is described from southern Mexico based on a unique male likely collected in the later part of the mid-19th Century. The discovery of additional species of the South African genus Clinops Gerstaecker permit a revised diagnosis and distinction of the group from the eastern Mediterranean genus Scotoscopus Brenske and Reitter, resurrected status. Two new species of Clinops are established: Clinopsinexpectatus sp. nov. (northeast of Durban near Swaziland) and C.perpessus sp. nov. (region of Durban), and Scotoscopusspectabilis (Schaufuss) is newly recorded for the Peloponnese in Greece.

Belleza plástica, eugenesia y educación física en Chile: presentación de la fuente "Aspectos de la educación física", de Luis Bisquertt (1930) / Plastic beauty, eugenics and physical education in Chile: a commentary on the work "Characteristics of physical education", by Luis Bisquertt (1930)

Resumen El siguiente texto busca presentar y contextualizar la fuente "Aspectos de la educación física", de Luis Bisquertt, poniendo énfasis en la búsqueda del mejoramiento racial en Chile de 1930, a partir de la educación física eugénica, cuyo paradigma corporal serían las estatuas clásicas helénicas. Uno de los conceptos centrales de este documento es el de belleza plástica, cuyo sentido se encuentra totalmente imbricado a la idea de normalidad y sanidad, patologizando aquellos cuerpos que no se enmarquen en el canon atlético, situación extendida por las características sedentarias de la modernidad.

Abstract The article seeks to introduce and contextualize the work "Characteristics of physical education" ("Aspectos de la educación física"), by Luis Bisquertt, which emphasizes the effort to ameliorate racial aspects in Chile, in 1930, thru physical education eugenics, whose body paradigm were the Hellenic classical statues. One of the key concepts of this document is plastic beauty, whose meaning overlaps with the idea of normality and sanity, creating pathologies on those bodies that were considered outside of the athletic standards, a situation that was aggravated by the sedentary conditions of modern times.

A new cave-dwelling species of Plakina (Porifera: Homoscleromorpha) from Crete, Greece (South Aegean Sea).

Recent studies showed a high diversity of the class Homoscleromorpha (Porifera) in the North Aegean Sea. In the South Aegean Sea, however, only one species of the homoscleromorph genus Plakina, P. weinbergi, was reported so far. Here we describe a new species of Plakina from a marine cave in the South Aegean Sea (Crete Island, Greece), viz., Plakina strongylata sp. nov. The new species is white, fragile, with a highly folded surface, and its spicules are diods, triods and calthrops with rounded extremities plus mono- and dilophose diods, mono-, di- and trilophose triods, and mono-, di, tri- and tetralophose calthrops. The number of Plakina species worldwide is raised to 35, of which nine occur in the Aegean Sea.

The effects of neoliberal policies on access to healthcare for people with disabilities.

Neoliberal reforms lead to deep changes in healthcare systems around the world, on account of their emphasis on free market rather than the right to health. People with disabilities can be particularly disadvantaged by such reforms, due to their increased healthcare needs and lower socioeconomic status. In this article, we analyse the impacts of neoliberal reforms on access to healthcare for disabled people. This article is based on a critical analytical review of the literature and on two case studies, Chile and Greece. Chile was among the first countries to introduce neoliberal reforms in the health sector, which led to health inequalities and stratification of healthcare services. Greece is one of the most recent examples of countries that have carried out extensive changes in healthcare, which have resulted in a deterioration of the quality of healthcare services. Through a review of the policies performed in these two countries, we propose that the pathways that affect access to healthcare for disabled people include: a) Policies directly or indirectly targeting healthcare, affecting the entire population, including disabled people; and b) Policies affecting socioeconomic determinants, directly or indirectly targeting disabled people, and indirectly impacting access to healthcare. The power differentials produced through neoliberal policies that focus on economic rather than human rights indicators, can lead to a category of disempowered people, whose health needs are subordinated to the markets. The effects of this range from catastrophic out-of-pocket payments to compromised access to healthcare. Neoliberal reforms can be seen as a form of structural violence, disproportionately affecting the most vulnerable parts of the population - such as people with disabilities - and curtailing access to basic rights, such as healthcare.

The dialectics of new fascism in Greece / A dialética do novo fascismo na Grécia

The success of historical fascism in the particular transitional period at the beginning of the 20th century was grounded in its contribution to the successive acceptance and application of the so-called Fordist model for the organization of labor (accompanied by the correspondent social conditions and relations). Historical fascism contributed thus, with its particular way, to establishing a new class compromise between the potentials related with the productive forces and the confinements emanating from the productive relations. This contribution constitutes the "creativity" of fascism. Such a historical perspective on social processes allows us not to fall into the trap of understanding fascism only as a (barbarian) "deception". Fascism cannot be a plain deception, because a "mere deceit" cannot mobilize people. Fascism takes over, adopts real and unfulfilled needs and hopes - which as such constitute resistance to the capitalist arrogance and logic of commodification of everything - and offers its own (fascist, barbarian) solution or fulfillment. Consequently, our responsibility cannot lie in rejecting these needs and hopes (which are basically needs and hopes for security) because of their distorted or "pervert" articulations. Our responsibility lies in the careful peeling of these hopes/demands from their (fascist) enwrapment. Nationalism (from the subalterns!) does not constitute a mere irrational leftover from the past, but contains potentially mystic and romantic pre- or anti-capitalist elements and references. Nationalism obtains its dynamics and persuasion (for the subalterns!) from and for the contemporary societal processes, thus constituting an active, political and actual demand/position within the restructuring of society - which is in itself a moment in the restructuring of capitalism. Herein also the "rational kernel" of the anti-capitalist antithesis by the New Right is founded as counter position to the "neutral" ...(AU)

O sucesso do fascismo histórico no período de transição, em particular no início do século 20, foi baseado em sua contribuição para a aceitação e aplicação sucessiva do chamado modelo fordista para a organização do trabalho (acompanhada das condições e relações sociais correspondentes). Fascismo histórico contribuiu assim, em sua forma particular, com a criação de um novo compromisso de classe entre os potenciais relacionados com as forças produtivas e as prisões que emanam das relações produtivas. Esta contribuição constitui a "criatividade" do fascismo. Tal perspectiva histórica sobre os processos sociais, não nos permite cair na armadilha de se compreender o fascismo apenas como um (bárbaro) "engano". O fascismo não pode ser um engano simples, porque um "mero engano" não pode mobilizar as pessoas. Fascismo assume, adota necessidades e esperanças reais e não cumpridas - que, como tal, constituem resistência à arrogância capitalista e lógica da mercantilização de tudo -, e oferece a sua própria solução (fascista, bárbara) ou sua realização. Por conseguinte, a nossa responsabilidade não pode mentir em rejeitar essas necessidades e esperanças (que são, basicamente, precisas e esperar pela segurança) por causa de suas articulações distorcidas ou "pervertido". Nossa responsabilidade exige-nos cuidadosas esperanças e demandas de seu (fascista) envolvimento. Nacionalismo (a partir dos subalternos!) não constitui uma mera sobra irracional do passado, mas contém potencialmente elementos anticapitalistas e referencias pré-místicas e românticas. Nacionalismo obtém sua dinâmica e persuasão (para os subalternos!) de e para os processos sociais contemporâneos, constituindo, assim, uma demanda/posição ativa, política e real no âmbito da reestruturação da sociedade - que é em si mesmo um momento na reestruturação do capitalismo. Aqui também o "núcleo racional" da antítese anticapitalista pela Nova Direita é fundada como posição contrária à mercantilização ...(AU)

The dialectics of new fascism in Greece / A dialética do novo fascismo na Grécia

The success of historical fascism in the particular transitional period at the beginning of the 20th century was grounded in its contribution to the successive acceptance and application of the so-called Fordist model for the organization of labor (accompanied by the correspondent social conditions and relations). Historical fascism contributed thus, with its particular way, to establishing a new class compromise between the potentials related with the productive forces and the confinements emanating from the productive relations. This contribution constitutes the "creativity" of fascism. Such a historical perspective on social processes allows us not to fall into the trap of understanding fascism only as a (barbarian) "deception". Fascism cannot be a plain deception, because a "mere deceit" cannot mobilize people. Fascism takes over, adopts real and unfulfilled needs and hopes - which as such constitute resistance to the capitalist arrogance and logic of commodification of everything - and offers its own (fascist, barbarian) solution or fulfillment. Consequently, our responsibility cannot lie in rejecting these needs and hopes (which are basically needs and hopes for security) because of their distorted or "pervert" articulations. Our responsibility lies in the careful peeling of these hopes/demands from their (fascist) enwrapment. Nationalism (from the subalterns!) does not constitute a mere irrational leftover from the past, but contains potentially mystic and romantic pre- or anti-capitalist elements and references. Nationalism obtains its dynamics and persuasion (for the subalterns!) from and for the contemporary societal processes, thus constituting an active, political and actual demand/position within the restructuring of society - which is in itself a moment in the restructuring of capitalism. Herein also the "rational kernel" of the anti-capitalist antithesis by the New Right is founded as counter position to the "neutral"...

O sucesso do fascismo histórico no período de transição, em particular no início do século 20, foi baseado em sua contribuição para a aceitação e aplicação sucessiva do chamado modelo fordista para a organização do trabalho (acompanhada das condições e relações sociais correspondentes). Fascismo histórico contribuiu assim, em sua forma particular, com a criação de um novo compromisso de classe entre os potenciais relacionados com as forças produtivas e as prisões que emanam das relações produtivas. Esta contribuição constitui a "criatividade" do fascismo. Tal perspectiva histórica sobre os processos sociais, não nos permite cair na armadilha de se compreender o fascismo apenas como um (bárbaro) "engano". O fascismo não pode ser um engano simples, porque um "mero engano" não pode mobilizar as pessoas. Fascismo assume, adota necessidades e esperanças reais e não cumpridas - que, como tal, constituem resistência à arrogância capitalista e lógica da mercantilização de tudo -, e oferece a sua própria solução (fascista, bárbara) ou sua realização. Por conseguinte, a nossa responsabilidade não pode mentir em rejeitar essas necessidades e esperanças (que são, basicamente, precisas e esperar pela segurança) por causa de suas articulações distorcidas ou "pervertido". Nossa responsabilidade exige-nos cuidadosas esperanças e demandas de seu (fascista) envolvimento. Nacionalismo (a partir dos subalternos!) não constitui uma mera sobra irracional do passado, mas contém potencialmente elementos anticapitalistas e referencias pré-místicas e românticas. Nacionalismo obtém sua dinâmica e persuasão (para os subalternos!) de e para os processos sociais contemporâneos, constituindo, assim, uma demanda/posição ativa, política e real no âmbito da reestruturação da sociedade - que é em si mesmo um momento na reestruturação do capitalismo. Aqui também o "núcleo racional" da antítese anticapitalista pela Nova Direita é fundada como posição contrária à mercantilização...

Mediterranean fever gene mutations in greek patients with Behcet's disease / Mutacionesen el gen de la fiebre mediterránea en pacientes griegos con la enfermedadde Behçet

OBJECTIVE: It is known that clinical similarities between Behcet's disease and Familial Mediterranean Fever have led to the hypothesis of a common pathogenesis. Familial Mediterranean Fever is caused by MEFV gene mutations coding for pyrin. Therefore, we examined whether these pyrin mutations are also associated with Behcet's disease. METHODS: Molecular testing for pyrin mutations was performed in 96 unrelated Greek patients with an established diagnosis of Behcet's disease. The results were compared with an analysis for pyrin mutations in 140 unrelated healthy Greek controls. RESULTS:We found no pyrin mutations among the Behcet cases tested; this result is comparable with the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Pyrin gene mutations in Greek patients with Behcet's disease are not more common than those in the general population. This finding is not in agreement with the findings in other populations. It is suggested that screening for pyrin mutations not be included in the evaluation of Greeks suspected to have Behcet's disease.

OBJETIVO:Se sabe que las similitudes clínicas entre la enfermedad de Behçet y la fiebre mediterránea familiar han llevado a la hipótesis de una patogénesis común. La fiebre mediterránea familiar es causada por mutaciones en el gen MEFV que codifica la pirina. Por lo tanto, examinamos si estas mutaciones de la pirina se hallan también asociadas con la enfermedad de Behçet. MÉTODOS: La prueba molecular para la detección de las mutaciones de la pirina se realizó en 96 pacientes griegos no relacionados, y diagnosticados con la enfermedad de Behçet. Los resultados se compararon con un análisis de las mutaciones de la pirina en 140 controles formados por individuos griegos saludables. RESULTADOS: No se encontraron mutaciones de pirina entre los casos de Behçet sometidos a prueba. Este resultado es comparable con el grupo control. CONCLUSIONES: Las mutaciones del gen de la pirina en los pacientes griegos con la enfermedad de Behçet no son más comunes que las de la población general. Este hallazgo no concuerda con los hallazgos en otras poblaciones. Se sugiere que el tamizaje para la detección de las mutaciones de pirina no se incluya en la evaluación de pacientes griegos sospechosos de padecer la enfermedad de Behçet.

Alma, corpo e a antiga civilização grega: as primeiras observações do funcionamento cerebral e das atividades mentais / Soul, body and the ancient greek civilization: the first observations of brain functioning and mental activities

Muitos dos conceitos existentes na neurociência moderna possuem suas origens nas especulações elaboradas pelos antigos filósofos e médicos gregos. Questões centrais sobre a fonte dos pensamentos humanos, o mecanismo da atividade cognitiva, e a natureza das emoções, percepção e movimento voluntário, por exemplo, foram levantadas pelos pensadores gregos. É a partir desta civilização que surgem as observações mais sistemáticas sobre a estrutura e o funcionamento do corpo, da mente e a relação entre estas duas entidades. Assim, o presente trabalho pretende observar as principais tentativas iniciais gregas em vincular estruturas do corpo (tais como o cérebro ou o coração) e atividades mentais, ao longo das diversas especulações gregas sobre a natureza, a filosofia, a psicologia e a medicina.

Many of the existing concepts in modern neuroscience have their origins in the speculations made by ancient Greek philosophers and physicians. Core questions about the source of human thought, the mechanism of cognitive activity as well as the nature of emotions, perceptions and voluntary movements, for example, were raised by Greek thinkers. It is from this civilization that arise more systematic observations on the structure and functioning of body, mind and relationship between these two entities. The present paper intends to adhere to the first Greek attempts to link structures of the body (such as the brain or the heart) and mental activities regarding various Greek speculations about the nature, philosophy, psychology and medicine.

Alma, corpo e a antiga civilização grega: as primeiras observações do funcionamento cerebral e das atividades mentais / Soul, body and the ancient greek civilization: the first observations of brain functioning and mental activities

Muitos dos conceitos existentes na neurociência moderna possuem suas origens nas especulações elaboradas pelos antigos filósofos e médicos gregos. Questões centrais sobre a fonte dos pensamentos humanos, o mecanismo da atividade cognitiva, e a natureza das emoções, percepção e movimento voluntário, por exemplo, foram levantadas pelos pensadores gregos. É a partir desta civilização que surgem as observações mais sistemáticas sobre a estrutura e o funcionamento do corpo, da mente e a relação entre estas duas entidades. Assim, o presente trabalho pretende observar as principais tentativas iniciais gregas em vincular estruturas do corpo (tais como o cérebro ou o coração) e atividades mentais, ao longo das diversas especulações gregas sobre a natureza, a filosofia, a psicologia e a medicina.(AU)

Many of the existing concepts in modern neuroscience have their origins in the speculations made by ancient Greek philosophers and physicians. Core questions about the source of human thought, the mechanism of cognitive activity as well as the nature of emotions, perceptions and voluntary movements, for example, were raised by Greek thinkers. It is from this civilization that arise more systematic observations on the structure and functioning of body, mind and relationship between these two entities. The present paper intends to adhere to the first Greek attempts to link structures of the body (such as the brain or the heart) and mental activities regarding various Greek speculations about the nature, philosophy, psychology and medicine.(AU)

BRCA patients in Cuba, Greece and Germany: Comparative perspectives on public health, the state and the partial reproduction of 'neoliberal' subjects.

The relationship among genetic technologies, biosocial identity and patient subjectivity has been the focus of an increasing range of social science literature. Examining mainly European and North American contexts this work has demonstrated the variable configurations of genetic knowledge-practices and the diverse implications for at-risk individuals and populations. This article brings together ethnographic research on genomic medicine, public health and breast cancer in Cuba, Greece and Germany. Although each case study addresses different publics/patients, institutional settings and risk-related practices, they all critically examine 'neoliberal' subjectivity and BRCA patienthood, at the intersection of political rationalities, medical discourses, social conditions and moral codes. In the Cuban case, cultural articulations of inherited and other embodied risks relating to breast cancer are analysed in relation to state provision of 'community genetics', and the shifting dynamics of public health in response to global social processes. The Greek case explores how culturally embedded values, notions of inherited risk and care inform or are re-articulated through institutional practices and ambivalent subject positions, at the meeting point between individualised medicine, religious philanthropy and the particularities of public health. In the German context, diverging patient subjectivities are examined against the background of prevailing social discourses and institutionalised risk management practices that promote proactive individuality. Drawing on deconstructive and feminist analyses, these case studies reveal how normative 'neoliberal' patient subjects are only 'partially reproduced' in situated contexts, neither stable nor homogeneous, as different actors and publics variously articulate, embrace or engage with transnational as well as culturally embedded discourses and health practices.

O ethos homérico, a cultura da vergonha e a cultura da culpa / The homeric ethos, the shame culture and the guilt culture

O presente ensaio tem como objetivo apresentar o ethos que subjaz às duas grandes narrativas homéricas, no intuito de caracterizar o povo grego tal como descrito por Homero, tanto na Ilíada quanto na Odisséia, como uma Cultura da Vergonha em oposição a uma Cultura da Culpa, terminologia cunhada por Ruth Benedict e apropriada por E. R. Dodds em sua análise do mundo helênico. Pretende-se, ainda, mostrar que mesmo definida essencialmente como uma cultura da vergonha, a coletividade narrada por Homero, principalmente na Odisséia, deixa antever as condições de possibilidade para o estabelecimento de uma cultura da culpa, que irá concretizar-se nos períodos posteriores da Antigüidade helênica(AU)

The present essay intends to bring out the ethos that lies beneath the two great Homeric narratives, in order to characterize the Greek people, as described in the Iliad and in the Odyssey, as a Shame Culture in opposition to the Guilt Culture, terminology coined by Ruth Benedict and adopted by E. R. Dodds in his analysis of the Hellenic world. It also aims to show that, though defined essentially as a shame culture, the collectivity referred to by Homer, mainly in the Odyssey, allows to foresee the conditions of possibility for the establishment of a guilt culture, that will come to existence in ulterior periods of Greek antiquity(AU)

[Population policy: the legacy of Greek thought]. / Politica de poblacion: la herencia del pensamiento griego.

The author "explains that the Greek philosophy and scientific thought developed elements of what is known today as population policies. These include roles and gender relationships, the population volume, the family, sexuality, birth control, eugenics, abortion and [quality of life]....The first part of the article reviews issues on family and women's roles. The second part is related to aspects associated with sexuality and...population policy." (SUMMARY IN ENG)

Workers with Family Responsibilities Convention (ILO No. 156).

The following countries ratified the Workers with Family Responsibilities Convention in 1988; 1) Argentina, 17 March 1988; 2) Greece, 10 June 1988; 3) Netherlands, 24 March 1988; and 4) San Marino, 19 April 1988.

[Colombian, Greek, Haitian, and Portuguese women immigrants in Quebec: socio-demographic characteristics]. / Colombiennes, Grecques, Haitiennes et Portugaises immigrees au Quebec: caracteristiques socio-demographiques

PIP: The socio-demographic characteristics of four groups of immigrant women in Quebec province are examined. The data are from official Canadian sources and from 76 interviews carried out in 1981 with women from Colombia, Greece, Haiti, and Portugal. Factors considered include spatial distribution, age distribution, marital status, educational status, language, employment and unemployment, occupation, and income.^ieng

A hypothetical study of populations under constant mortality and fertility.

PIP: 28 countries with different characteristics have been selected in order to observe the amount of time it takes for these different countries to reach stable age distributions. The individual populations by sex and age were projected for 150 years in 5-year intervals with the present constant mortality and fertility schedules by component method. Observations have been made by considering the following characteristics of population when it has acquired stability: age distribution; the rate of growth, birthrate, and mortality rate; the population change; the intrinsic rate of growth, birthrate and mortality rate; and approximate time taken to stabilize the population. The initial age distribution has a significant part in the amount of time it takes for a population to acquire stability, and its intrinsic rate of growth is mostly dependent upon the existing age distribution of that population. The time taken for a country's population to become stable depends upon the age distribution, fertility and mortality schedules at the beginning. It has been observed that countries having a higher intrinsic rate of growth take comparatively less time in acquiring stability than the countries having a lower intrinsic rate of growth. The mortality and fertility schedules of a country is another important phenomenon. The populations of the different countries at the point of stability were growing according to their rates of growth. No specific trend of population growth could be found among the groups of countries. Time taken for stabilizing the population is completely based upon age distributions, fertility and mortality schedules a particular country was having at the beginning. The range of time taken for different countries to acquire stability generally ranged from 100 to 135 years. Among the different countries the relationship for the time it takes to acquire stability has not been established. This is a hypothetical approach in order to obtain some idea as to how a population with different characteristics acts in the long run when some of its characteristics are assumed to be constant.^ieng

[Family planning. A survey of United Nations around the world]. / Le planning familial. Une enquete des Nations Unies a travers le monde.

PIP: Responses to the second worldwide survey of 80 nations on their population policy can be divided into 3 categories. First are countries with large official programs of family planning in existence: Egypt, Kenya, Tunisia, Barbados, Colombia, Panama, Trinidad and Tobago, China, India, Iran, Japan, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Republic of Viet-nam, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey, Denmark, Netherlands, United Kingdom, Yugoslavia, Canada, and Fiji. Madagascar and New Zealand are starting programs. The second category is countries that encourage private family planning programs: Tanzania, Mexico, Israel, Cambodia, Bahrain, Jordan, Laos, Syria, Austria, France, West Germany, Finland, and Norway. Third are listed countries that do not officially support, or that forbid contraception: Gabon, Malawi, Zambia, Greece, Italy, and Spain. Thus Asia and North Africa have the most ambitious programs, but Europe and North America practice contraception universally.^ieng

World population projections: alternative paths to zero growth.

PIP: This article discusses Frejka's analysis of alternative paths to zero population growth. A net reproduction rate (NRR) of 1 is a vital step in reaching zero growth, but because of age distribution variances, it does not necessarily represent zero growth. The projections described here include: 1)the immediate path of achieving NRR of 1 in 1970-1975: 2)rapid path of an NRR of 1 in 2000-2005: and 3)slow path of NRR of 1 in 2040-2045. The population of the world in the year 2000 would be respectively: 5,700,000,000; 6,000000,000; and 7,000,000,000. Zero growth would be reached in 2000 for the immediate path; in 2100 with a population of 8,000,000,000 in the rapid path; and in 2045 with a population of 15,000,000,000. Individual projections are also given for several countries on different continents.^ieng