Free will, quarantines, and moral enhancements: neuroabolitionism as an alternative to criminal law.

This article critically navigates the complex debate surrounding free will and criminal justice, challenging traditional assumptions of moral responsibility and culpability. By exploring hard incompatibilism, which denies free will, I question the ethical justification of punitive sanctions and critically analyze the alternative models such as the public health-quarantine and nonconsensual neurobiological "moral" enhancements. These alternatives, however, introduce practical and ethical concerns. Advocating for a neuro-abolitionist perspective, through the proposition of five initial principles/debates, the article suggests a shift in integrating sociological abolitionism with insights from neuroscience. The discussion extends to the implications of hard incompatibilism and the pursuit of more humane and effective approaches to deviant behavior, ultimately calling for the abolition of punitive models and criminal law itself.

Chilean neurorights legislation and its relevance for mental health: Criticisms and outlook / La legislación chilena sobre neuroderechos y su relevancia para la salud mental: Críticas y perspectivas

Abstract Background Recently, the academic world has established a series of reconfigurations of emerging human rights, in order to safeguard the mental integrity of people exposed to neurotechnologies. The recommendations of different stakeholders and a literature review support regulation of these technologies. There are different proposals for regulation, some in soft law and others in objective law. The type of regulation chosen can have repercussions on clinical practice, research, and public policy. The constitutional enactment of neurorights in Chile has been criticized in the academic fields of neuroethics and law as having potential negative effects on mental health research. Objective To analyze in light of the available literature whether the construction of neurorights could create ethical conflicts in the field of mental health, or if it could offer protection against the disruptive use of various neurotechnologies. Method This analysis included a narrative review of studies included in the PsycInfo, Springer, JSTOR, Medline, Scopus, PubMed, CINALH, and Web of Science databases, without restrictions on language or year of publication. Results The enactment of neurorights as hard law is found not to be detrimental to the field of mental health. Discussion and conclusion This article argues that the regulation of neurorights does not threaten the framework of an ecosystem that uses neurotechnologies. On the contrary, such regulation offers protections to people within the complex system of neurotechnologies.

Resumen Antecedentes Recientemente, el mundo académico ha establecido una serie de reconfiguraciones de derechos humanos emergentes, con el fin de salvaguardar la indemnidad mental de las personas expuestas a las neurotecnologías. Las recomendaciones de las diferentes partes interesadas y de una revisión bibliográfica son la regulación de estas. Existen diferentes ejemplos de regulación, algunos de derecho blando y otros de derecho objetivo. El tipo de regulación puede tener repercusiones en la práctica clínica, la investigación y las políticas públicas de una comunidad. La consagración constitucional chilena de los neuroderechos ha sido criticada desde el mundo académico de la neuroética y también desde el derecho argumentándose que podría ser negativa para la investigación en salud mental. Objetivo Analizar a la luz de la literatura disponible si la constitucionalización de los neuroderechos es éticamente conflictiva en el campo de la salud mental o más bien la protege frente del uso disruptivo de diversas neurotecnologías. Método Revisión narrativa de estudios incluidos en las siguientes bases de datos (PsycInfo, Springer, JSTOR, Medline, Scopus, PubMed, CINALH y Web of Science) sin restricciones de idioma o año de publicación. Resultados No se considera que la consagración de los neuroderechos como hard law sea perjudicial en el ámbito de la salud mental. Discusión y conclusión Se discute si los neuroderechos son una regulación amenazante en el marco de un ecosistema que utiliza neurotecnologías. Se concluye que, a pesar de las críticas, no lo es, sino que favorece la protección de las personas del uso inapropiado de neurotecnologías.

Neuroethics and cultural context: The case of electroconvulsive therapy in Argentina.

As neuroethics continues to grow as an established discipline, it has been charged with not being sufficiently sensitive to the way in which the identification, conceptualization, and management of the ethical issues raised by neuroscience and its applications are shaped by local systems of knowledge and structures. Recently there have been calls for explicit recognition of the role played by local cultural contexts and for the development of cross-cultural methodologies that can facilitate meaningful cultural engagement. In this article, we attempt to fill this perceived gap by providing a culturally situated analysis of the practice of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in Argentina. ECT was introduced as a psychiatric treatment in Argentina in the 1930s but it is largely underutilized. While the use of ECT remains low in several countries, what makes the Argentinian case interesting is that the executive branch of government has taken a stance regarding both the scientific and moral appropriateness of ECT, recommending its prohibition. Here, we begin with a recent controversy over the use of ECT in Argentina and explain the legal recommendation to ban its application. Next, we offer an overview of some of the salient aspect of the international and local discussions on ECT. We argue that the governmental recommendation to ban the procedure should be rethought. While acknowledging the role that contexts and local conditions play in shaping the identification and assessment of the relevant ethical issues, we caution against using contextual and cultural considerations to avoid a necessary ethical debate on controversial issues.

Neurochips: Considerations from a neurosurgeon's standpoint.

A neurochip comprises a small device based on the brain-machine interfaces that emulate the functioning synapses. Its implant in the human body allows the interaction of the brain with a computer. Although the data-processing speed is still slower than that of the human brain, they are being developed. There is no ethical conflict as long as it is used for neural rehabilitation or to supply impaired or missing neurological functions. However, other applications emerge as controversial. To the best of our knowledge, there have no been publications about the neurosurgical role in the application of this neurotechnological advance. Deliberation on neurochips is primarily limited to a small circle of scholars such as neurotechnological engineers, artists, philosophers, and bioethicists. Why do we address neurosurgeons? They will be directly involved as they could be required to perform invasive procedures. Future neurosurgeons will have to be a different type of neurosurgeon. They will be part of interdisciplinary teams interacting with computer engineers, neurobiologist, and ethicists. Although a neurosurgeon is not expected to be an expert in all areas, they have to be familiar with them; they have to be prepared to determine indications, contraindications and risks of the procedures, participating in the decision-making processes, and even collaborating in the design of devices to preserve anatomic structures. Social, economic, and legal aspects are also inherent to the neurosurgical activity; therefore, these aspects should also be considered.

[GENDER IN THE BRAIN: BETWEEN SCIENCE AND IDEOLOGY]. / El sexo del cerebro: entre ciencia e ideología.

Despite tremendous advances in neurosciences, the idea that biology is a major determinant for gender differences in cognition and behavior, is still alive. Media and internet continue to feed the public with old clichés that claim that women are naturally good for empathy but unable to read a map, while men have a brain suited for maths and competition. These discourses suggest that at birth the intellectual abilities are wired differently in the brains of girls and boys. Such a view is in total contradiction with today's knowledge on cerebral plasticity, and on the role of the environment in re-shaping the brain through learning and expe-riences. The plasticity concept allows new insight to the question of the origin of brain differences and similarities between the sexes. Experience in the sociocultural context involves gender learning processes which interact with the biological processes. A major challenge is that of building an interdisciplinary dialogue across the biological, social, and human sciences to develop new approaches linking sex, gender and the brain.

Definiendo los alcances de la neuroética / Defining the scopes of neuroethics

El término neuroética define al campo de bioética que se ocupa de los dilemas originados en el desarrollo de las neurociencias. ¿Por qué nos resulta tan sensible reflexionar sobre la neuroética? Porque se ocupa del cerebro, órgano responsable de nuestras percepciones, de nuestros pensamientos y de nuestra conciencia, y el conocimiento y/o su manipulación involucran a lo más genuino e intransferible del ser humano. Desde 2002, la neuroética ha sido considerada como nueva disciplina que ofrece un campo de reflexión para el conocimiento y las acciones neurocientíficas en lo que atañe a las personas como individuos y a la sociedad como organización. Dentro de este marco podemos distinguir dos ramas: la neuroética fundamental y la neuroética aplicada. La neuroética exige estar alertas y ofrecer ámbitos de encuentros interdisciplinarios donde participe la sociedad, propender a las reflexiones éticas e inclusive trabajar con anticipación los dilemas que están emergiendo. La ciencia no se detiene ni retrocede y su desarrollo ha adquirido un ritmo acelerado; por lo que no ha habido suficiente tiempo para debatir estos procesos. Estamos convencidos que la Neuroética será al siglo XXI, lo que la Genética fue al siglo XX.

The term neuroethics defines the bioethics field that deals with the dilemmas arising from the development of the neurosciences. Why are we so sensitive to ponder on neuroethics? Because it involves the brain, the organ responsible for our perceptions, our thoughts and our conscience; and its knowledge and/or manipulation entail the most genuine and nontransferable aspects of the human being. Since 2002, neuroethics has been recognized as a new discipline that offers an area of consideration for neuroscientific knowledge and the actions regarding human beings as individuals, and the society as an organization. Whitin its framework, we can distinguish two branches: fundamental neuroethics and applied neuroethics. Neuroethics demands that we are on alert, and we offer the possibility of interdisciplinary exchange programs, encouraging society to participate, promoting the ethical opinions, and even working with anticipation on the dilemmas that are already emerging. Science does not stop, and its development has acquired such an accelerated pace that there has not been enough time to discuss its processes. We are convinced that neuroethics will be for the 21st century, what genetics was for the 20th century

Neuroética: supuestos a través de publicaciones en el campo / Neuroethics: Assumptions through publications in the field / Neuroética: suposições através de publicações no campo

El avance de la tecnociencia ha permitido un progreso importante en el conocimiento del cerebro, lo que se acompaña de desafíos que surgen a partir de procesos de evaluación e intervención de este maravilloso y complejo órgano. Estos desafíos son abordados, en parte, por un nuevo saber: la Neuroética, con una notable relevancia en la actualidad, y visible a través de publicaciones científicas. El objetivo del presente artículo es, por tanto, describir los supuestos que se reflejan a través de los temas que se publican en Neuroética, hasta el año 2018. La metodología utilizada involucró la revisión de bases de datos y motores de búsqueda de revistas científicas en diferentes áreas del conocimiento, con la palabra clave Neuroética (neuroethics). La mirada general de las publicaciones sugiere una percepción cerebrocentrista de la Neuroética y una tendencia atomizadora por los deseos de sobreespecificar y subdividir el campo.

Technoscience advance has allowed important progress in brain knowledge brain, accompanied by challenges from brain evaluation and intervention. These challenges are addressed, in part, by a new knowledge: Neuroethics, currently relevant and visible through scientific publications. Therefore the aim of this article is to describe assumptions through the publications in Neuroethics, in 4 years. The methodology used involved databases revision and search engines of scientific journals in different knowledge areas. The keyword used was "Neuroethics". The general view suggests a braincentered perception of neuroscience and a atomizing tendency for overspecify and subdivide the field

O avanço da ciência e da tecnologia tem permitido avanços significativos na compreensão do cérebro, que é acompanhado por desafios decorrentes de processos de avaliação e intervenção deste órgão maravilhoso e complexo. Estes desafios são abordados, em parte, por um novo conhecimento: Neuroethics, com notável relevância hoje, e visível através de publicações científicas. O objectivo deste artigo é, por conseguinte, para descrever os pressupostos reflectidas através tópicos publicados em Neuroética, em um curso de 4 anos. A metodologia envolveu revisão bases de dados e motores de busca de revistas científicas em diferentes áreas do conhecimento, com a palavra chave "neuroética" (Neuroethics). A visão geral das publicações sugere uma percepção da neurociência centrada no cérebro e a tendência de atomização para os desejos de superespecificar e subdividir o campo.

Primum non nocere or primum facere meliorem? Hacking the brain in the 21st century / Primum non nocere ou primum facem meliorem? O cérebro pirateado do século 21

Abstract Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique that modulates cortical excitability. It is devoid of serious adverse events and exerts variable effects on cognition, with several research findings suggesting that it can improve memory, verbal and mathematical skills. Because tDCS devices are low-cost, portable and relatively easy to assemble, they have become available outside of the medical setting and used for non-medical ("cosmetic") purposes by laypersons. In this sense, tDCS has become a popular technique aiming to improve cognition and the achievement of a better performance not only at work, but also in other fields such as sports, leisure activities (video games) and even the military. In spite of these unforeseen developments, there has been a general paralysis of the medical and regulatory agencies to develop guidelines for the use of tDCS for cosmetic purposes. Several challenges are present, most importantly, how to restrict tDCS use outside of the medical setting in face of variable and sometimes conflicting results from scientific research. This article aims to describe the popular use of tDCS, in light of the pillars of neuroethics, a branch of bioethics relative to brain research. Between two possible but extreme solutions - total release or total restriction of tDCS - it is paramount to develop a spectrum of alternatives, which may vary over time and in different cultural backgrounds.

Resumo A estimulação transcraniana por corrente contínua (ETCC) é uma técnica não invasiva de estimulação cerebral que modula a excitabilidade cortical. A ETCC é desprovida de efeitos adversos graves e exerce efeitos variáveis sobre a cognição, com vários achados de pesquisa sugerindo que a técnica pode promover melhora nas habilidades mnêmica, verbal e matemática. Devido ao seu baixo custo, portabilidade e facilidade de montagem, os aparelhos de ETCC tornaram-se disponíveis fora do contexto médico, sendo usados para fins não médicos ("cosméticos") por indivíduos leigos. Nesse sentido, a ETCC tornou-se um procedimento popular para aprimoramento da cognição e a realização de melhor desempenho não somente no ambiente de trabalho, mas também em campos tais como o esporte, atividades de lazer ( video games ) e até no meio militar. Apesar desses acontecimentos imprevisíveis, há uma certa morosidade das agências médicas e regulatórias em desenvolver diretrizes para o uso de ETCC para fins cosméticos. Há muitos desafios presentes, principalmente, como restringir o uso da ETCC fora do contexto médico em face de resultados variáveis, e muitas vezes conflitantes, da pesquisa científica sobre o tema. Este artigo tem como objetivo descrever o uso popular da ETCC sob a luz da neuroética, um ramo da bioética que se dedica ao estudo do cérebro. Entre duas situações possíveis, mas extremas - liberação ou restrição totais da ETCC -, é primordial o desenvolvimento de um espectro de alternativas, que podem variar ao longo do tempo e depender de diversos contextos culturais.

Neuroscience of Childhood Poverty: Evidence of Impacts and Mechanisms as Vehicles of Dialog With Ethics.

Several studies have identified associations between poverty and development of self-regulation during childhood, which is broadly defined as those skills involved in cognitive, emotional, and stress self-regulation. These skills are influenced by different individual and contextual factors at multiple levels of analysis (i.e., individual, family, social, and cultural). Available evidence suggests that the influences of those biological, psychosocial, and sociocultural factors on emotional and cognitive development can vary according to the type, number, accumulation of risks, and co-occurrence of adverse circumstances that are related to poverty, the time in which these factors exert their influences, and the individual susceptibility to them. Complementary, during the past three decades, several experimental interventions that were aimed at optimizing development of self-regulation of children who live in poverty have been designed, implemented, and evaluated. Their results suggest that it is possible to optimize different aspects of cognitive performance and that it would be possible to transfer some aspects of these gains to other cognitive domains and academic achievement. We suggest that it is an important task for ethics, notably but not exclusively neuroethics, to engage in this interdisciplinary research domain to contribute analyses of key concepts, arguments, and interpretations. The specific evidence that neuroscience brings to the analyses of poverty and its implications needs to be spelled out in detail and clarified conceptually, notably in terms of causes of and attitudes toward poverty, implications of poverty for brain development, and for the possibilities to reduce and reverse these effects.

La ciencia irrumpe en la ética médica: neuroética y psicoanálisis de Freud / The irruption of science in medical ethics: neuroethics and Freud’s psychoanalysis / A ciência irrompe na ética médica: neuroética e psicanálise de Freud

El psicoanálisis y la neuroética se ocupan de los fenómenos éticos que nacen de la aplicación de técnicas y tecnologías surgidos de las ciencias de la psiquis. Existe una considerable coincidencia entre los tópicos cubiertos por la neuroética y los fenómenos conceptuales que han constituido la ocupación de los psicoanalistas. La neuroética descansa en una perspectiva biologicista, en la que es real solo aquello que es biológico; con ello entrega una visión de la ética que limita el significado del único tema que importa al psicoanálisis: la comprensión de los significados inconscientes y el papel del discurso para discernir y justificar estos sentidos. La neuroética ha conducido a la ética a considerar lo sensorial, lo físico y lo visual, a expensas del significado psicológico de la dimensión psíquica de la existencia humana.

Psychoanalysis and neuroethics are concerned with ethical issues arising in the application of techniques and technologies stemming from the sciences of the mind. There is considerable overlap between the topics covered in neuroethics and in conceptual issues with which psychoanalists have long been concerned. Relying on a biologistic perspective, whereby only what is biological is real, neuroehtics offers a vision of ethics that limits the significance of the unique psychoanalytic concern: the understanding of unconscious meanings and the role of discourse in discerning and justifying these meanings. Neurethics has been leading ethics toward an appreciation of the sensory, the physical, the visual, at the expense of psychological meaning, the psychic dimension of human existence.

A psicanálise e a neuroética se ocupam dos fenômenos éticos que nascem da aplicação de técnicas e tecnologias surgidos das ciências da psiquê. Existe uma considerável coincidência entre os tópicos cobertos pela neuroética e os fenômenos conceituais que tem constituido a ocupação dos psicanalistas. A neuroética descansa numa perspectiva biologicista, na qual é real só aquilo que é biológico; com isso entrega uma visão da ética que limita o significado do único tema que importa à psicanálise: a compreensão dos significados inconscientes e o papel do discurso para discernir e justificar estes sentidos. A neuroética tem conduzido a ética a considerar o sensorial, o físico e o visual, às expensas do significado psicológico da dimensão psíquica da existência humana.

Neuroética. Ética de la neurociencia / Neuroethics. Ethics of neuroscience

Actualización del extenso y variado concepto de la neuroética. Se discute la responsabilidad profesional, tanto de médicos como de otros profesionales vinculados con las diversas ramas de la neurociencia, relacionados con la salud y la enfermedad de los pacientes afectados de un proceso que comprometa al sistema nervioso central o periférico. Se analiza el espectro amplio de la neurociencia y su vinculación con la neurotecnología. Se enumeran los diversos tipos de iatrogenia. Descripción de cuatro pacientes en estado vegetativo y muerte cerebral. Se plantea la actitud y responsabilidad del profesional médico analizando y discutiendo el enfoque terapéutico correspondiente. Se recuerdan las desviaciones de la neuroética durante el período nazi, antes y durante la Segunda Guerra mundial. Se mencionan situaciones médicas especiales que plantean aspectos neuroéticos.

Update of broad concept of neuroethics. The liability of different members related to neuroscience connected to health and disease of the central and peripheral nervous system are discussed. The importance of neuroethics with neurotechnology. Different types of iatrogenic disturbances are mentioned. Four patients with vegetative state and cerebral death, and the medical responsibility in the therapeutic approach are analyzed. Deviations of neuroethics during the nazi period and the second world war are described. Some especial medical situations with neuroethics aspects are commented.

Neuroética, deficiência e reabilitação / Neuroethics, disability and rehabilitation

Este texto na forma de ensaio apresenta um tema muito atual em Neurociências ­ a Neuroética. Definida como o exame do que é certo ou errado, em relação ao tratamento do cérebro humano, seu aperfeiçoamento, sua boa invasão ou manipulação preocupante, trata-se de uma disciplina derivada da Bioética que visa discutir e relacionar os temas acerca da moral e da ética sob a luz das Neurociências. O enfoque é dado aos aspectos relacionados à Neurorreabilitação, haja vista que frequentemente nos deparamos com dilemas éticos importantes no que diz respeito às condutas e atitudes empregadas no processo de reabilitação de indivíduos portadores de deficiências. Decisões terapêuticas adequadas e uma boa relação terapeuta/paciente são fatores essenciais para que se obtenha êxito no manejo destes casos. São levantadas as questões polêmicas da abordagem terapêutica, o modelo médico de classificação das deficiências e as políticas públicas de saúde voltadas para essa parcela da população. Assim, busca-se despertar nos profissionais da área o interesse pela reflexão ética e filosófica a respeito do que fazemos diante destes pacientes e dos seus familiares. De forma evidente, existe a necessidade de um esforço conjunto da sociedade, com intuito de proporcionar condições reais de inclusão em todas as fases da vida, e em todos os níveis de atendimento, garantindo acessibilidade, além de inserção em âmbito escolar e no mercado de trabalho.

This text in the form of essay presents a very current topic in Neuroscience - the Neuroethics. Defined as the examination of what is right or wrong in relation to the treatment of the human brain, its improvement, its good worrisome intrusion or manipulation, it is a derivative of Bioethics discipline that aims to discuss and relate those issues of morality and ethics in the light of Neuroscience. The focus is given to aspects related to Neurorehabilitation, given the fact that often we are faced with important ethical dilemmas with regard to behavior and attitudes employed in the process of rehabilitation of the disabled individuals. Appropriate treatment decisions and a good therapist/patient relationship, are essential in order to obtain success in handling these cases. The controversial issues of the therapeutic approach, the classification of medical model of disability and health public policies for this population are raised. Thus, we seek to awaken the professionals interest in philosophical and ethical reflection about what we do on these patients and their families. Evidently, there is a need for a joint effort of society, aiming to provide real conditions for inclusion in all stages of life and at all levels of care, ensuring accessibility, and integration in the school environment and the market work.

Neuroethics: the pursuit of transforming medical ethics in scientific ethics

Ethical problems resulting from brain research have given rise to a new discipline termed neuroethics, representing a new kind of knowledge capable of discovering the neural basis for universal ethics. The article (1) tries to evaluate the contributions of neuroethics to medical ethics and its suitability to outline the foundations of universal ethics, (2) critically analyses the process of founding this universal ethic. The potential benefits of applying neuroimaging, psy-chopharmacology and neurotechnology have to be carefully weighed against their potential harm. In view of these questions, an intensive dialogue between neuroscience and the humanities is more necessary than ever.

Neuroethics scope at a glance.

The term neuroethics defines the bioethics field that deals with the dilemmas arising from the development of the neurosciences. Why are we so sensitive to ponder on neuroethics? Because it involves the brain, the organ responsible for our perceptions, our thoughts, and our conscience; and its knowledge and/or manipulation entail the most genuine and nontransferable aspects of the human being. Since 2002, neuroethics has been recognized as a new discipline that offers an area of consideration for neuroscientific knowledge and the actions regarding human beings as individuals, and the society as an organization. Within its framework, we can distinguish two branches: fundamental neuroethics and applied neuroethics. Neuroethics demands that we are on alert, and we offer the possibility of interdisciplinary exchange programs, encouraging society to participate, promoting the ethical opinions, and even working with anticipation on the dilemmas that are already emerging. Science does not stop, and its development has acquired such an accelerated pace that there has not been enough time to discuss its processes. We are convinced that neuroethics will be for the 21(st) century, what genetics was for the 20(th) century.

Estudio exploratorio sobre conocimientos y actitudes frente algunas intervenciones neurocientíficas en Colombia / Exploratory study about the knowledge and attitudes towards neuroscientific interventions in Colombia

El objetivo del estudio fue evaluar las actitudes y conocimientos de 40 participantes pertenecientes a diferentes esferas sociales frente a las intervenciones neurocientíficas en ensanchamiento o mejoramiento cognitivo. Esto, con el fin de explorar en qué medida encuentran moralmente aceptable los desarrollos biotecnológicos en las neurociencias del comportamiento. Se realizó un análisis cuantitativo y cualitativo. No se encontraron diferencias en la actitud hacia las intervenciones según el nivel de conocimiento. Por último, se observó una tendencia central en lo que respecta a las percepciones éticas sobre estas intervenciones, a pesar de encontrar diferencias de aceptabilidad moral en los diferentes grupos.

This study was aimed to assess attitudes and knowledge of 40 people from different social status toward the scientific interventions in cognitive neuroenhancement. It is in order to inquire about the moral acceptance of the biotechnologically viable in behavioral neuroscience. Both, quantitative and qualitative analyses were performed. No differences in attitude towards interventions according to the level of knowledge were presented. Finally a central tendency was observed toward the ethical perceptions about the mentioned interventions, in spite of having found moral differences in moral acceptability among the different groups.

La neuroética, problema emergente en la bioética

Se hace una revisión somera de las posturas frente al funcionamiento del cerebro humano y su comparación con el funcionamiento de una computadora, se revisan algunos conocimientos sobre la llamada inteligencia artificial y la mente humana y algunas de sus características que la hacen diferente de las máquinas; finalmente, se hacen unas consideraciones sobre la libertad humana y la ética.

A brief revision of the positions concerning the way the human brain works and its comparison with the way computers do is made in this text. Some of the knowledge about the so called artificial intelligence and the human mind is also revised, remarking the characteristics that make the latter different from machines. Finally, some considerations about human freedom and ethics are made.

Se faz uma revisão superficial das posturas frente ao funcionamento do cérebro humano e sua comparação com o funcionamento de um computador, revisam-se alguns conhecimentos sobre a chamada inteligência artificial e a mente humana e algumas de suas características que a fazem diferente das máquinas; finalmente, fazem-se umas considerações sobre a liberdade humana e a ética.

Desde la bioética a la neuro-ética: neuro-ética o persono-ética? / From bioethics to neuro-ethics: neuro-ethics or person- ethics? / De neuro-ética à bioética: neuro-ética ou persono-ética?

Hay una continuidad desde la ética a la bioética y hacia la neuro-ética en cuanto esta, por medio de las últimas tecnologías, muestra las bases neurológicas que posibilitan la dimensión moral del ser humano. Este artículo pretende hacer una reflexión sobre la incursión de las neurociencias con relación a la ética, da respuestas a ciertas cuestiones, pero aún quedan muchas preguntas por responder. Aquí se hace ver cómo la naturaleza biológica humana posibilita el juicio y la conducta moral. Se presentan así las bases neurológicas del juicio moral especificando las funciones del córtex pre-frontal con relación al conocimiento social y los juicios éticos en compleja trama no solo con la corteza y el encéfalo sino con el todo de la persona humana y su ambiente. Se pasa luego a estudiar la evolución de la conciencia en general y la conciencia moral desde la neurología, la influencia social y las decisiones personales del sujeto moral. Se afirma la vida como valor biológico primario desde el cuerpo-cerebro en interrelación compleja con la vida psíquica y espiritual, es decir, la vida holística como valor supremo de la ética. Se concluye que no es suficiente estudiar los aspectos neurológicos sino la totalidad del ser humano para abordar lo que hemos llamado la persono-ética. Tenemos una naturaleza biológica que posibilita el juicio y la conducta moral. Lo natural biológico necesita lo cultural, es decir, una estructura educacional, pues el progreso moral es responsabilidad de cada hombre y de la sociedad en la formación epi-genética del cerebro.

There is a continuity from ethics to bioethics and to the neuro-ethics as this, using the latest technologies, shows the neurological bases that enable human moral dimension. This article shows how human biological nature enables judgment and moral behavior. We present the neurological basis of moral judgment specifying the functions of prefrontal cortex in relation to social knowledge and ethical judgments in complex plot not only with the cortex and the brain but with the totality of the human person and his environment. We pass later to study the evolution of consciousness in general and moral consciousness from neuroscience, social influence and personal choices of the moral subject. It affirms life as primary biological value from the body-brain in complex interrelationship with psychic and spiritual life, i.e., holistic life as the supreme value of ethics. We conclude that it is not enough to study the neurological aspects but the whole human being to deal with what we have called the person-ethics. We have a biological nature which enables the judgment and moral behavior. The natural biological needs cultural, i.e., an educational structure, for moral progress is the responsibility of every person and of society in shaping brain epigenetics.

Há uma continuidade da ética à bioética e à neuro-ética uma vez que esta, através das mais recentes tecnologias, mostra as bases neurológicas que possibilitam a dimensão moral do ser humano. Este artigo mostra como a natureza biológico humano possibilitam o julgamento e o comportamento moral. Então são apresentadas as bases neurológicas do julgamento moral especificando as funções do córtex pré-frontal em relação ao conhecimento sociais e os juízos éticos na trama complexa não só com o córtex e o cérebro, mas com toda a pessoa humana e seu ambiente. Em seguida, examina a evolução da consciência em geral e a consciência moral de neurologia, a influência social e as decisões pessoais do sujeito moral. Afirma a vida como um valor biológico primário a partir do corpo-cérebro em inter-relação complexa com a vida psíquica e espiritual, ou seja, a vida holística como valor supremo da ética. Conclui-se que não é o suficiente estudar os aspectos neurológicos, mas a totalidade do ser humano para lidar com o que chamamos o persono-ética. Temos uma natureza biológica que possibilita o julgamento e o comportamento moral. O biológico natural precisa o cultural, ou seja, uma estrutura educacional, como progresso moral é a responsabilidade de cada indivíduo e a sociedade na formação epigenética do cérebro.