Event-related potentials of social comparisons in depression and social anxiety.

Social comparison is central in human life and can be especially challenging in depression and social anxiety. We assessed event-related potentials and emotions using a social comparison task in which participants received feedback on both their own and a co-player's performance, in participants with depression and/or social anxiety (n = 63) and healthy controls (n = 72). Participants reported more negative emotions for downward (being better than the co-player [participant correct, co-player wrong]) and upward (being worse than the co-player [participant wrong, co-player correct]) comparisons versus even outcomes, with these effects being stronger in depression and social anxiety. At the Medial Frontal Negativity, both controls and depressed participants showed a more negative amplitude for upward comparison versus both the participant and co-player performing wrong. Socially anxious subjects showed the opposite effect, possibly due to greater expectations about being worse than others. The P300 decreased for downward and upward comparisons compared to even outcomes, which may relate to the higher levels of conflict of social inequality. Depressed and socially anxious subjects showed a blunted P300 increase over time in response to the task outcomes, suggesting deficits in allocating resources for the attention of incoming social information. The LPP showed increased amplitude for downward and upward comparison versus the even outcomes and no group effect. Emotional findings suggest that social comparisons are more difficult for depressed and socially anxious individuals. Event-related potentials findings may shed light on the neural substrates of these difficulties.

Dispositional greed and life satisfaction: the role of social comparison for well-being.

There is a lack of studies addressing the psychological mechanisms underlying the association between individual differences in greed and well-being. This study tested the relationship between dispositional greed, and satisfaction with life, as well as the moderating effect of social comparison orientation on this association (N = 373). As expected for hypothesis 1, we found that greed correlated negatively with satisfaction with life, and positively with social comparison orientation, even after controlling for individuals' mental health index (anxiety and depression), supporting the hypothesis 2. Further, the moderating effect of social comparison strengthened the relationship between high levels of dispositional greed and dissatisfaction with life, failing to support hypothesis 3. As such, individuals high on dispositional greed were less satisfied with life if they also showed lower (vs. medium level) levels of social comparison orientation. These findings add to the psychological literature on greed by showing that social comparison is not only positively related to it but can also be a vital mechanism for boosting psychological well-being.

Social media jealousy and life satisfaction in romantic relationships: mediation role of communication skills / Celos en redes sociales y satisfacción en relaciones románticas: papel mediador de las habilidades comunicativas

Abstract Objective. The main aim of this study is to examine the mediation role of communication skills in the relationship between social media jealousy and life satisfaction in individuals with romantic relationships. Method. The sample group of the study consisted of a total of 445 individuals who have a romantic relationship, 228 females and 217 males aged from 18 to 31 in the period of emerging adulthood. The mean age of participants in the study was 23.49 (SD = 3.29). In order to gather data Social Media Jealousy Scale, Life Satisfaction Scale and Communication Skills Scale. Results. According to the findings of the study, social media jealousy negatively predicted life satisfaction. The main focus and other important finding of the study was that communication skills mediated the relationship between social media jealousy and life satisfaction. This study emphasises the mediating role of communication skills between social media jealousy and life satisfaction in individuals with romantic relationships and suggests that developing and strengthening communication skills. This study points to an important area in terms of understanding and improving the effects of social media interactions on emotional experience and life satisfaction.

Resumen Objetivo. El objetivo principal de este estudio es examinar el papel mediador de las habilidades comunicativas en relación con los celos en las redes sociales y la satisfacción vital en individuos con relaciones románticas. Método. El grupo de muestra del estudio consistió en un total de 445 individuos que mantienen una relación romántica, 228 mujeres y 217 hombres con edades comprendidas entre los 18 y los 31. La edad media de los participantes en el estudio era de 23.49 años (DT = 3.29). Para la recolección de datos, se utilizaron la Escala de Celos en las Redes Sociales, la Escala de Satisfacción Vital y la Escala de Habilidades Comunicativas. Resultados. Según los resultados del estudio, los celos de las redes sociales predijeron negativamente la satisfacción vital. El principal hallazgo fue que las habilidades comunicativas mediaron la relación entre los celos en los medios sociales y la satisfacción vital. Este estudio subraya el papel mediador de las habilidades de comunicación entre los celos de los medios sociales y la satisfacción vital en individuos con relaciones románticas y recomienda el desarrollo y fortalecimiento de las habilidades de comunicación. Este estudio apunta a un área importante en términos de comprensión y mejora de los efectos de las interacciones de los medios sociales en la experiencia emocional y la satisfacción vital.

Uso pasivo de redes sociales y malestar psicológico. El rol de la comparación social / Passive use of social media sites and psychological distress. The role of social comparison

Resumen La presente investigación se focalizó en los diferentes tipos de uso (activo/pasivo) que hacen los usuarios de redes sociales y los efectos psicológicos que esto puede conllevar, sobre todo en aquellos sujetos tendientes a compararse con los demás. Por un lado, se examinó el poder predictor de variables relacionadas al uso de redes sociales (i. e., tiempo de conexión, tipo de uso -pasivo/activo-, motivaciones de uso) y la comparación social, sobre el malestar psicológico percibido (i. e., depresión, ansiedad, estrés). Por otro lado, se analizó el rol mediador de la comparación social en la relación entre el uso pasivo de redes sociales y la percepción de malestar psicológico percibido. La muestra fue de conveniencia y estuvo compuesta por 420 sujetos de población general (211 hombres, 209 mujeres), con una media de edad de 40.29 años (DE = 14.93). Se utilizaron los siguientes instrumentos de recolección de datos: Motives for SMSs use Scale; Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure (INCOM-E), Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21) y una escala diseñada ad-hoc para evaluar el uso activo y pasivo que se hace de redes sociales. Los resultados obtenidos mostraron que la comparación social es el principal predictor de malestar psicológico junto con el motivo de uso relacionado con pasatiempo/exhibicionismo. Además, se pudo comprobar un efecto indirecto del uso pasivo sobre el malestar psicológico considerando a la comparación social como variable mediadora. Por lo tanto, usar pasivamente las redes generaría mayor malestar si el usuario tiende a compararse con quienes realizan las publicaciones.

Abstract The present investigation is framed in the field of cyberpsychology. It aimed to analyze the predictive power of variables related to the use of social media sites -SMSs- (i. e., connection time, type of use -passive / active-, motivations for use) and social comparison, on perceived psychological distress (i. e., depression, anxiety, stress). Furthermore, the mediating role of social comparison in the relationship between the passive use of SMSs and the perceived psychological distress, was also analyzed. It is important to study these topics since different international studies have shown inconsistent and contradictory results regarding the effects of SMSs use on individuals' well-being (e. g., Frison y Eggermont, 2015; Kraut et al., 2002; Nie et al., 2015). Consequently, some studies have focused on understanding whether the manner in which people use the networks, whether actively or passively, explains how technology impacts on users' well-being and/or psychological distress (Verduyn et al., 2015). The negative impact of passive use of SMSs can be explained by the Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954), which suggests that people tend to evaluate themselves in comparison with others. These comparisons might generate negative effects on the individual (Giagkou et al., 2018) and, according to Lup et al. (2015), social comparison may be a mediating variable in this association. Regarding participants of the study, a convenience sample of 420 subjects of general population was studied (211 men, 209 women). The mean age was 40.29 years old (SD = 14.93). The majority of the participants (n = 278) lived in Buenos Aires City and surroundings. In terms of variables related to the use of SMSs, when asked about type of SMSs, most participants reported using more than one SMS, mainly Facebook (72 %) and Instagram (57 %). Regarding time spent on SMSs, 60 % of the respondents used their favorite SMS more than three times a day. The mean daily time engaged on all the SMSs exceeded five hours. Data were gathered using the Motives for SMSs use Scale (Lupano Perugini y Castro Solano, 2021a), the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure (INCOM-E) (Buunk et al., 2005; Gibbons y Buunk, 1999), the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21) (Antúnez y Vinet, 2012; Lovibond y Lovibond, 1995). Furthermore, a survey to assess individuals' use of social networks was designed. The first part explored the most frequently used SMSs, the number and type of friends/followers, and the time spent on SMSs. The main SMSs were listed and participants were asked to indicate whether they used them or not, and if they did, they rated the amount of time spent on SMSs daily. The total amount of time per day was also surveyed. The second part of the survey was designed based on The Passive Active Use Measure (PAUM, Gerson et al., 2017) and some users' suggestions. This instrument assesses the frequency of certain activities performed on the networks to find out if participants make active use (e. g., posting information, commenting) or passive use (e. g., viewing profiles and posts, scrolling). The obtained results showed that social comparison is the main predictor of psychological distress. The motivation for use related to pass time / exhibitionism was also a significant predictor. In addition, an indirect effect of passive use on perceived psychological distress could be verified, considering social comparison as a mediating variable. Therefore, using the social networks passively would generate greater discomfort if the user tends to compare themselves with those who make the publications. The results of this study allow both users and healthcare and education providers to have greater knowledge of the consequences of using social media on individuals' overall well-being, and to promote their proper use.

Body, eating, and exercise comparison orientation measure (BEECOM): Cross-cultural adaptation and psychometric properties among Brazilian female university students.

The Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure (BEECOM) is an instrument that aims to quantify behaviors related to social comparison, specifically comparisons related to the body, eating and exercise, and was originally developed using a nonclinical population of American university women. The objective of this study was to perform a cross-cultural adaptation and verify the psychometric qualities of the BEECOM for young Brazilian adult women aged 18-35 years. In the present study, the cross-cultural adaptation of the instrument was performed through its translation, back-translation and evaluation by the target population. The instrument proved to be easy to understand among young women. Then, the psychometric qualities of the instrument were evaluated using a sample of 716 women (Mage = 22.47 ± 3.10). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated the presence of three factors and satisfactory adjustment indexes. The BEECOM presented an invariant measurement across white vs. nonwhite and physically active vs. non-active individuals. In addition, the instrument showed adequate reliability and convergent validity. In conclusion, the BEECOM is a useful tool to evaluate social comparison behaviors related to eating disorders and body image in young Brazilian female adults, enabling further research on these constructs and supporting the development of preventive strategies.

Benign and Malicious Envy Scale: cross-cultural adaptation and validity evidence for adolescents / Escala de Inveja Benigna e Maliciosa: adaptação transcultural e evidências de validade para adolescentes / Escala de Envidia Benigna y Maliciosa: adaptación transcultural y evidencia de validez para adolescentes

Although there are few Brazilian studies on this subject, envy is a universal phenomenon present in the cultural and social spheres. This research aimed to conduct a cross-cultural adaptation to Brazilian Portuguese and to evaluate validity evidence for the Benign and Malicious Envy Scale (BeMaS), a measure of benign and malicious envy. A total of 248 adolescents aged between 12 and 17 (M=13.93 ±1.39, 47.9% boys) participated in this research. Evidence of validity based on content, internal structure, relationship to other variables (stress, anxiety, depression, and life satisfaction), and reliability indicators were estimated. The exploratory factor analysis suggested the adequacy of the internal structure composed of two factors, demonstrating the equivalence of the internal structure with the original version and good indicators of reliability (ω= 0.760 e 0.823) and relationships with external variables consistent with the theoretical hypotheses. The Results suggest the adequacy of the instrument.

Embora ainda pouco explorada nos estudos nacionais, a inveja é um fenômeno universal e observado nas esferas sociais e multiculturais. Esta pesquisa teve como principal objetivo a adaptação transcultural para o português brasileiro e avaliação de evidência de validade da Escala de Inveja Benigna e Maliciosa (BeMaS), instrumento que avalia dimensões benigna e maliciosa da inveja disposicional. Participaram 248 adolescentes, com idade entre 12 e 17 anos (M = 13,93 ± 1,39, 47,9% meninos). Foram estimadas evidências de validade baseadas no conteúdo, na estrutura interna, na relação com outras variáveis (estresse, ansiedade, depressão e satisfação com a vida) e nos indicadores de precisão. A Análise Fatorial Exploratória sugeriu a adequação da estrutura com dois fatores da versão brasileira da BeMaS, demonstrando equivalência da estrutura interna com a versão original, bem como bons indicadores de precisão (ω = 0,760 e 0,823) e relações com variáveis externas coerentes com as hipóteses teóricas. Os resultados sugerem adequação do instrumento.

Aunque hay pocos estudios brasileños acerca del tema, la envidia es un fenómeno universal presente en las esferas cultural y social. Esta investigación tuvo como objetivo llevar a cabo una adaptación transcultural al portugués brasileño y evaluar la evidencia de validez de la Escala de Envidia Benigna y Maliciosa (BeMaS), una medida de la envidia benigna y maliciosa. Un total de 248 adolescentes, de 12 a 17 años de edad (M = 13.93 ± 1.39, 47.9% de los niños) participaron en esta investigación. Se estimaron las evidencias de validez basadas en el contenido, la estructura interna, la relación con otras variables (estrés, ansiedad, depresión y satisfacción con la vida) y los indicadores de confiabilidad. El análisis factorial exploratorio sugirió la adecuación de la estructura interna compuesta por dos factores, lo que demuestra la equivalencia con la versión original, así como buenos indicadores de confiabilidad (ω = 0.760 e 0.823) y relaciones con variables externas consistentes con el hipótesis teóricas. Los resultados sugieren la adecuación del instrumento.

Use of Instagram, social comparison, and personality as predictors of self-esteem / Uso do Instagram, comparação social e personalidade como preditores da autoestima / Uso de Instagram, comparación social y personalidad como predictores de la autoestima

In the face of a population that is increasingly connected electronically, the objective of this research was to test the predictive power of Instagram's use intensity, social comparison and the five major personality factors of self-esteem. The survey, made available on the internet with sociodemographic questions and four scales, was answered by 625 Brazilians, of which 63.7% were women. The results indicated neuroticism and social comparison (abilities factor) as negative predictors of self-esteem. Extraversion, agreeableness, consciousness, social comparison (opinions factor), and age were shown to be positive predictors of self-esteem. For women, the higher the intensity of Instagram's use, the lower the levels of self-esteem. The negative relationship between self-esteem and the intensity of Instagram use was mediated by social comparison (suppression effect). It is suggested that the harm of using the social network relates to the activity of comparing himself to other people. (AU)

Diante de uma população cada vez mais conectada virtualmente, o objetivo desta pesquisa foi testar o poder preditivo da intensidade de uso do Instagram, da comparação social e dos cinco grandes fatores de personalidade sobre a autoestima. O questionário, disponibilizado na internet com perguntas sociodemográficas e quatro escalas, foi respondido por 625 brasileiros, sendo 63,7 % mulheres. Os resultados indicaram o neuroticismo e a comparação social (fator habilidades) como preditores negativos da autoestima. A extroversão, a socialização, a realização, a comparação social (fator Opiniões) e a idade mostraram-se preditores positivos da autoestima. Para as mulheres, quanto maior a intensidade de uso do Instagram, menores os níveis de autoestima. A relação negativa entre a autoestima e a intensidade de uso do Instagram foi mediada pela comparação social (efeito de supressão). Sugere-se que os prejuízos do uso da rede social para o indivíduo relacionam-se com a atividade de comparar-se com outras pessoas. (AU)

Ante una población cada vez más conectada virtualmente, el objetivo de esta investigación fue probar el poder predictivo de la intensidad de uso de Instagram, de la comparación social y de los cinco grandes factores de personalidad sobre la autoestima. El cuestionario, disponible en Internet con preguntas sociodemográficas y cuatro escalas, fue respondido por 625 brasileños, siendo 63,7% mujeres. Los resultados indicaron el neuroticismo y la comparación social (factor habilidades) como predictores negativos de la autoestima. La extroversión, la socialización, la realización, la comparación social (factor opiniones) y la edad se mostraron predictores positivos de la autoestima. Para las mujeres, cuanto mayor es la intensidad de uso de Instagram, más bajos los niveles de autoestima. Se medió la relación negativa entre autoestima e intensidad de uso de Instagram por comparación social (factor habilidad). Se sugieren los perjuicios del uso de la red social para el individuo se relacionan con la actividad de compararse con otras personas. (AU)

Comparación social y su impacto en enfermedades crónicas. Una revisión sistemática / Social comparison and its impact on chronic diseases. A systematic review

Resumen Las enfermedades crónicas, generalmente se asocian con bajos niveles de adherencia al tratamiento, baja calidad de vida, morbilidad y mortalidad. Aunque los procesos interpersonales tales como la comparación influyen la adherencia a los tratamientos, poca investigación ha sido desarrollada con la Teoría de la Comparación Social como fundamento teórico. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar el rol que la comparación social tiene en las conductas en salud relacionadas a enfermedades crónicas. Usando metodología PRISMA, se seleccionó artículos publicados sin límite de fecha. Los resultados sugieren que la comparación social se asocia con el ajuste psicológico a la enfermedad, dependiendo de las características de ésta. Futuros estudios deben considerar si es posible diseñar intervenciones específicas basadas en la teoría y qué moderadores mejorarían su efectividad.

Abstract Chronic diseases are generally associated with low adherence to treatment, poor quality of life, morbidity, and mortality. Although interpersonal processes such as social comparison influence treatment adherence, little research has been conducted with the Social Comparison Theory as a theoretical background. This study aimed to analyze the role that social comparison has on health behaviors related to chronic diseases. Using the PRISMA methodology, we selected manuscripts published without any limit date. Our results suggest that social comparison is associated with the psychological adjustment to chronic diseases, depending on its characteristics. Future studies must address whether it is possible to design tailored interventions based on the theory and what moderators improve the intervention´s effectiveness.

The Psychometric Structure of the Spanish Language Version of The Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure in Spain and Chile.

The present study investigated the structure of the Spanish version of the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure (INCOM-E), an 11-item measure that assesses individual differences in social comparison orientation (SCO), i.e., the extent to which people compare themselves with others. Data came from samples from Spain (n = 1,133) and Chile (n = 2,757). Confirmatory Factor Analyses and Mokken Scale Analyses supported in both samples not the assumed two-factor structure, but a single factor structure, consisting of eight items. The resulting eight-item version of the INCOM-E was reliable in both samples, according the Gutmann's lambda-2 (.82 in Spain and .83 in Chile), and correlated very strongly with the full-length INCOM-E (.93 in Spain and .97 in Chile). In both samples, there were significant sex differences, ps < .001 with small effect sizes, ƞ2 in both samples = .01,but in the Spanish sample women scored higher, and in the Chilean sample men scored higher in SCO. The relationship with age was negative and significant (ps < .001) in both samples, albeit small (r = .22 in Spain and .13 in Chile) Based on the present research, it is advised to use the shortened eight-item version of the INCOM-E in Spanish speaking countries.

Do Transgender People Respond According to Their Biological Sex or Their Gender Identity When Confronted With Romantic Rivals?

This study examined the hypothesis that gender identity and biological sex represent independent modules and that transgender individuals respond to romantic rivals in line with their gender identity and not with their biological sex. Additionally, associations of jealousy with intrasexual competitiveness (ISC) and social comparison orientation (SCO) were explored. A total of 134 male-to-female and 94 female-to-male transgender individuals from Greater Buenos Aires, Argentina, responded to a questionnaire. In line with the predictions, female-to-male transgender individuals experienced more jealousy than male-to-female transgender individuals in response to a physically dominant rival, whereas male-to-female individuals experienced more jealousy than female-to-male individuals in response to a physically attractive rival. Regardless of their gender identity, in both groups social-communal attributes were the most jealousy-evoking characteristic. Overall, the results indicate that transgender individuals mainly respond in line with their gender identity and not in line with their biological sex when facing romantic rivals. In addition, transgender individuals high in ISC experienced relatively more jealousy in response to all rival characteristics, whereas SCO was only among male-to-female individuals associated with jealousy.

Between-group competition, intra-group cooperation and relative performance.

We report the results of a new public goods experiment with an intra-group cooperation dilemma and inter-group competition. In our design subjects receive information about their relative individual and group performance after each round with non-incentivized and then incentivized group competition. We found that, on average, individuals with low relative performance reduce their contributions to the public good, but groups with low performance increase theirs. With incentivized competition, where the relative ranking of the group increases individual payoffs, the reaction to relative performance is larger with individuals contributing more to the group; further, we observe that the variance of strategies decreases as individual and group rankings increase. These results offer new insights on how social comparison shapes similar reactions in games with different incentives for group performance and how competition and cooperation can influence each other.

La edad y el sexo en la orientación a la comparación social / The age and sex in the social comparison orientation

La Orientación a la Comparación Social (OCS) es la disposición personal de los individuos propensos a la comparación social. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la OCS en distintas edades en hombres y mujeres. La hipótesis principal es que la media en OCS es mayor en los rangos de edades menores y desciende a medida que aumenta la edad. Participaron 2757 personas, entre los 10 y 88 años de edad, de la ciudad de Antofagasta, que fueron evaluadas con el cuestionario INCOM - E. Los resultados indican una disminución significativa en la media de la OCS a medida que aumenta la edad de los rangos. Se encuentra también que la media en OCS es significativamente mayor en los hombres que en las mujeres. Los alcances de este estudio abren paso a nuevas líneas de investigación como las implicancias de las construcciones de género en la OCS.

The Social Comparison Orientation (SCO) is the personal disposition of individuals prone to social comparison. The aim of this study was to analyze the SCO at different ages in men and women. The main hypothesis is that the average is higher in SCO younger age ranges and decreases as age increases. Participants 2757 people between 10 and 88 years of age in the city ofAntofagasta, which were assessed with a questionnaire INCOM - E. The results show a significant decrease in the mean SCO with increasing age ranges. It is also found that the average SCO is significantly higher in men than in women. The scope of this study open up new lines of research and the implications of gender constructions in the SCO.