A review of the contributions of forensic archaeology and anthropology to the process of disaster victim identification.

Forensic archaeology and anthropology have developed significantly over past decades and now provide considerable assistance to the investigation process of disaster victim recovery and identification. In what are often chaotic death and crime scenes, the formal process of utilizing archaeological methods can bring control, order, and ensure systematic search. Procedures assist in defining scene extent, locating victims and evidence, rule out areas for consideration, and provide standardized recording and quality assurance through dedicated use of standardized forms (pro formas). Combined archaeological and anthropological search methods maximize opportunities to recovery the missing through identifying remains, mapping distributions, and providing accounting of victims at the scene. Anthropological assistance in examinations contributes to individual assessment, resolving commingling and fragmentation issues, and utilizing DNA sampling methods and matching data to reassociate and account for the missing. Utilization of archaeology, anthropology, and DNA matching data provides scope to review crime scene recovery and determine requirements and potential for further survey and retrieval. Adopting the most suitable methods for a particular context can maximize recovery, efficiency, and resource use. Case studies demonstrate the utility of archaeological methods in a range of scenarios. They exemplify the success of multidisciplinary analysis in providing evidence of the sequence of events, the timing of events, the impact of taphonomic processes, the location and accounting of victims, and the demonstration of systematic scene search. The considerations provided in this article, utilizing archaeology and anthropology processes, may assist investigators in planning and implementing responses to mass fatalities.

Burning temperature and bone modification: The cremation dynamics.

Burning a body is one of the best-known methods to conceal a crime. The aim of this study is to identify thermal changes in bones burned at pre-set temperatures. 100 cadavers undergone cremation were analysed. Cremation temperatures ranged from 600 to 1200 °C, whereas cremation time was monitored. Morphological and colour changes of the bones, the development of fire-related fractures and surface were studied to analyse bone response to thermal alteration.

Optimizing coastal exhumation strategies: The casework of the Committee on Missing Persons in Cyprus (2006-2022).

This paper reports on coastal exhumations performed during 2006-2022, under the framework of the Committee on Missing Persons in Cyprus (CMP) humanitarian identification programme. CMP archaeologists investigated 217 coastal locations and recovered skeletal remains on 44 occasions. Challenging environmental conditions required a customized exhumation plan, which could be executed swiftly without compromising operational integrity or standards. The author performed a retrospective analysis to propose an optimized strategy, which includes a survey, exhumation, digital documentation, and post-processing components, with the aim of minimizing the effects of adverse environmental conditions. The proposed strategy is based on scientific standards and observations in the field; it can satisfy the needs of a humanitarian or criminal investigation if appropriate measures are taken to uphold legislative and forensic standards. The author also discussed the taphonomic effects of coastal erosion and wave activity in tandem with exhumation recommendations to assist forensic practitioners involved in similar investigations.

Quantifying microcracks on fractured bone surfaces - Potential use in forensic anthropology.

Bone fracture surface morphology (FSM) can provide valuable information on the cause of failure in forensic and archaeological applications and it depends primarily on three factors, the loading conditions (like strain rate), the ambient conditions (wet or dry bone material) and the quality of bone material itself. The quality of bone material evidently changes in taphonomy as a result of the decomposition process and that in turn is expected to affect FSM. Porcine bones were fractured by a standardised impact during the course of soft tissue decomposition, at 28-day intervals, over 140 days (equivalent to 638 cooling degree days). Measurements of the associated microcracks on the fractured cortical bone surfaces indicated a progressive increase in mean length during decomposition from around 180 µm-375 µm. The morphology of these microcracks also altered, from multiple intersecting microcracks emanating from a central point at 0-28 cumulative cooling degree days, to longer linear cracks appearing to track lamellae as soft tissue decomposition progressed. The implications of these findings are that taphonomic changes of bone may offer the real possibility of distinguishing perimortem and taphonomic damage and also provide a new surrogate parameter for estimation of post-mortem interval (PMI) in forensics.

Multi-agent scavenging patterns in Hawai'i: A forensic archaeological and skeletal case study.

Knowledge of the behavior of local fauna can aid forensic investigators in developing awareness of site formation processes. In Hawai'i, little has been published on the effects of feral domestic pig (Sus scrofa) and feral domestic dog (Canis familiaris) scavenging and bone dispersal on field recovery and laboratory observations. In this Pacific tropical setting, the most consequential terrestrial taphonomic agents are pigs and dogs, both in terms of hard tissue modification and dispersal of remains across the landscape. In 2017, an archaeologist discovered the remains of an unidentified decedent on the island of Kaua'i, State of Hawai'i during a cultural resource management survey. Subsequently, a forensic recovery team in conjunction with Kaua'i police and crime scene investigators used archaeological techniques, including pedestrian survey, tape-and-compass, and GPS mapping, to map and recover the remains. A feral pig trail transected various areas of the recovery site and corresponded with the distribution pattern of recovered skeletal material, including both the main concentration more broadly dispersed skeletal elements. While much of the skeleton was present, missing or unrecovered skeletal elements are consistent with expectations based on existing literature. Much of the postmortem bone deformations were characteristic of marks related to feral dog and/or feral pig scavenging. These results assisted local investigators in deciding the manner of death, as well as providing the family with an accounting of the decedent's remains for burial. Thus, forensic anthropologists and archaeologists need to understand and develop knowledge of local animal behavior to recover and interpret human remains of medicolegal significance.

The legislation, search, recovery, identification and repatriation of conflict casualties worldwide: Introducing the WWI and WWII Special Issue.

Conflict casualties refer to those individuals who are lost due to military conflict or war. The involvement of forensic archaeologists and anthropologists in the legal search, recovery, documentation, identification, and repatriation/reburial of conflict casualties is well known. Internationally, there are a number of professional organisations who ethically recover and identify these individuals. However, at the same time, some organisations and individuals have raised significant concerns about working in other countries, understanding specific laws and protocols, and how the whole recovery and identification process should be undertaken. Through this special issue, Forensic Science International is interested in promoting these investigative good-practice procedures, illustrated with case studies, and ethical and legal considerations when undertaking and disseminating these humanitarian missions to the wider forensic community. This Special Issue focuses primarily on the First and Second World Wars, yet other conflicts are covered, and includes the views and perspectives from different organisations within specific countries in the format of original papers, commentaries, and case reports. Specifically, these papers include the legislative regulations, information regarding the authorities to be consulted on and who deal with human remains, the organisations and professionals who are involved with the recovery and analysis of human remains, the process of identification, and how this information is disseminated to the public.

Spanish Civil War: The recovery and identification of combatants.

In the context of exhumations of individuals who died during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), since the year 2000, over 780 mass graves have been excavated using archaeological methodology and following forensic protocols. Most of the recovered more than 9600 bodies have tended to be from the Republican civil population, the majority having been executed extrajudicially. However, a number of exhumations relate to the remains of soldiers who died in combat. In fact, approximately 100 individual or mass graves have been investigated and exhumed, containing the remains of combatants. These burials tend to be in the same location where they fell, usually in the front line, or close to the field hospitals where they went after being wounded initially. During the recovery of the human remains, a number of artefacts related to the uniform as well as personal effects have been found. An interdisciplinary approach from archaeology, anthropology, genetics, history and other disciplines has enabled the identification of some of these combatants. The aim of this paper is to present the data obtained from these combatants and highlight the work undertaken in Spain, and the efforts by scientists to exhume, identify and return the remains to relatives where possible.

Detecting grave sites from surface anomalies: A longitudinal study in an Australian woodland.

Forensic investigations of single and mass graves often use surface anomalies, including changes to soil and vegetation conditions, to identify potential grave locations. Though numerous resources describe surface anomalies in grave detection, few studies formally investigate the rate at which the surface anomalies return to a natural state; hence, the period the grave is detectable to observers. Understanding these processes can provide guidance as to when ground searches will be an effective strategy for locating graves. We studied three experimental graves and control plots in woodland at the Australian Facility for Taphonomic Experimental Research (Sydney, Australia) to monitor the rate at which surface anomalies change following disturbance. After three years, vegetation cover on all grave sites and control plots had steadily increased but remained substantially less than undisturbed surroundings. Soil anomalies (depressions and cracking) were more pronounced at larger grave sites versus the smaller grave and controls, with leaf litterfall rendering smaller graves difficult to detect beyond 20 months. Similar results were observed in two concurrent burial studies, except where accelerated revegetation appeared to be influenced by mummified remains. Extreme weather events such as heatwaves and heavy rainfall may prolong the detection window for grave sites by hindering vegetation establishment. Observation of grave-indicator vegetation, which exhibited abnormally strong growth 10 months after commencement, suggests that different surface anomalies may have different detection windows. Our findings are environment-specific, but the concepts are applicable globally.

Identity discs: The recovery and identification of First World War soldiers located during archaeological works on the former Western front.

During the First World War, German, French, and British soldiers were provided with identity discs or bracelets containing personal information to ensure that they could be identified, were they to die in battle. Each combatant nation developed their system in response to the difficulties encountered in relation to the identification and burial of dead on the battlefield, in accordance with the requirements of the 1906 Geneva Convention. As a result, it is possible to encounter a variety of designs issued during the war, including historical patterns which had been re-issued. Though it is not unusual to discover the presence of skeletal remains from the First World War during archaeological works in France and Belgium, it is a rare occasion to also recover an identity disc. This paper will describe how soldiers located during archaeological works are identified, making recommendations for the improved recording of skeletal remains recovered during the excavation process to assist the investigative procedures. These recommendations may also be applied to the discovery of more recent military remains, e.g. soldiers who died during the Second World War, where evidence of war crimes may be present.

Assessing the quality of footwear marks recovered from simulated graves.

Footwear marks are one of the most frequently encountered evidence types recovered from a crime scene and can provide valuable scene intelligence regarding potential suspects. It has been acknowledged that impressions of footwear and tools can be recovered from graves, but previous studies have only focused on tool mark recovery. This has led to a lack of published information regarding footwear mark recovery from graves. It is therefore important to demonstrate whether the recovery of footwear marks is feasible and, if so, under what conditions this can be achieved. To address recovery, this study, placed 60 three dimensional (3D) impressions of footwear marks within 60 simulated graves. This was done to assess time (1, 2, 4 months) and at known depths (20, 30, 40 cm). The footwear marks within the graves were covered with clothing or left uncovered. The shoe's design patterns were grouped and counted in a photographic comparison between the 3D footwear impressions, placed within the test-pits, and any recovered impressions. A grading system was adapted by the authors to score the quality of footwear impressions observed during recovery. The results demonstrate that the preservation and recovery of footwear impressions from graves is feasible. The simulated graves covered with clothing showed better preservation of footwear impressions, but there was no clear evidence that time or depth had an effect. The authors note that careful consideration and vigilant excavation skills are needed when excavating graves which may bear potential footwear marks, as their recovery will lead to an increased amount of intelligence that can link suspects to homicide scenes.

Recovery of trace evidence in forensic archaeology and the use of alternate light sources (ALS).

The effectiveness of alternate light source (ALS) to fluoresce bone and other materials is well-attested to in a laboratory setting but rarely, if ever, has it been used in field excavation. This study examined the recovery rates of fragmentary bone, fabric, and metal, both with and without the use of an ALS, through practical and controlled excavation experiments with multiple users. All archaeology, including forensic archaeology and crime scene investigation more generally, should account for trace evidence. Currently, there is limited empirical data for the recovery of evidence from excavation, and those studies that do exist, highlight the short-comings in current methods. Six comparable test pits were created, representing empty graves in which only trace evidence remained. Each contained 20 fragments of bone (≤10mm), 16 hair fibres, two pieces of fabric and two lead pieces, which were back-filled and left for over 15 weeks. Three excavators were each tasked with excavating two test pits: one using ALS, one in daylight conditions. The results of the experiment identified some critical aspects of using blue 455nm wavelength ALS in the field, and the importance of experienced practitioners. Sample evidence was small in size and recovery rates were low. In daylight conditions, an average of 46% of trace evidence was identified, while just 40% was recovered using ALS. This excludes hair fibres which were almost undetectable in all conditions. When using ALS, smaller bone fragments were more than twice as likely to be recovered, but less non-fluorescent materials were found. The experience of each excavator had a positive correlation with excavation results. Excavation error rates were calculated, demonstrating that excavation is comparable using either technique, but daylight conditions lead to greater accuracy. The findings suggest that ALS can be used to increase recovery of some evidence types. Test pits provided none of the usual primary evidence associated with graves and excavators had no prior experience of ALS. While retrieval rates were low, almost all recovered items were found in situ and an accurate records maintained. Error rates in forensic archaeology are essential and it is hoped that the method outlined here can be developed towards the establishment of acceptable error rates. While ALS use in forensic archaeology should not be considered a panacea to issues of trace evidence recovery, a combination of well-tested archaeological excavation methods, alongside the implementation of such proven forensic techniques, would likely lead to improved recovery of evidence.

Amsterdam Research Initiative for Sub-surface Taphonomy and Anthropology (ARISTA) - A taphonomic research facility in the Netherlands for the study of human remains.

A taphonomic research facility for the study of human remains was recently realized in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, to systematically investigate the decomposition of the human body under known conditions. Governmental authorization was obtained to make use of the body donation program of the Amsterdam University Medical Centers, location Academic Medical Center, for this specific purpose. In contrast to the small number of comparable initiatives elsewhere, this facility specifically allows for the study of buried bodies e.g. with the use of telemetry and remote sensing. Here, we discuss the concept of body donation in the Netherlands, its role in taphonomic research, and the sequence of events that preceded the realization of this facility, which is the first of its kind in Europe. In addition to offering novel research options to the scientific community, we hope that it will also pave the way for the successful realization of similar initiatives in other locations.

A First World War example of forensic archaeology.

Between 1919 and 1921, the First World War battlefields of France and Belgium were searched by the British Army for the single graves and small cemeteries containing the bodies of British and Commonwealth soldiers. This process was called "concentration". When found, these graves were exhumed, the bodies within were examined to try and establish or confirm identification, and were subsequently reburied in newly built. Imperial War Grave Commission cemeteries. This task was carried out by military staff working for the Directorate of Graves Registration and Enquiries. They had no forensic or medical experience and yet in less than three years they moved hundreds of thousands of graves, on a scale never seen before or since. Written records were issued for the soldiers working on exhumation in 1919 giving detailed instructions on how to search for buried or unburied individuals, the method to follow for excavating these graves and directions for the examination of bodies. These instructions are very similar to those used in modern forensic archaeology when excavating single or mass graves, or when dealing with multiple bodies following mass disasters. They show an awareness of the effects of human burials on the surrounding environment and address search and excavation problems that are still experienced. The example given here in France and Belgium is one of the earliest examples of Forensic Archaeology for humanitarian purposes, and the instructions issued are probably the earliest written instructions for a Forensic Archaeological excavation.

Cemetery hoodoo: Culture, ritual crime and forensic archaeology.

In 2012 and 2014 the author was a consultant to law enforcement regarding crime scenes of a ritualistic nature in the American Southeast. These ritual activities were expressions of folk magic spells linked to certain West African traditions. These spells were used for magico-religious, curative, and 'justice' (i.e. revenge) practices known as hoodoo, conjure or rootwork. The ritual activities were conducted at gravesites in a public cemetery. When standard investigative police procedures failed to produce anything substantive with which to solve, prevent, or even understand the motive beyond one of 'vandalism,' or 'kids fooling around,' the author was approached to contribute forensic archaeological and anthropological insights that had thus far proved elusive. This article is an examination of how cultural anthropological understanding and a forensic archaeological "eye" to an outdoor crime scene can re-define crime scene investigative methodology and interpretation.

Forensic archaeology and anthropology sensitization in post-conflict Uganda.

The renowned work of Clyde Snow and the development of the Equipo Argentino de Anthropología Forense (EAAF) team has inspired the use of forensic anthropological and archaeological skills in human rights interventions around the world. Whether for medico-legal intervention and acquisition of evidence or humanitarian repatriation and identification of human remains, forensic expertise has garnered attention in the global arena. Arguably fulfilling evidentiary and psychosocial needs, there has been growing interest in this post-conflict redress. However, as part of the critique of these interventions, scholars and practitioners have pointed out - primarily in medico-legal investigations - a lack of sensitization of local communities regarding forensic work, increasing the potential for re-traumatization, unrealistic expectations, or an unintentional increase in political tensions. Research regarding forensic intervention and human remains have permeated social sciences, peace and conflict studies, and science and technology studies, revealing both intentional and unintentional impacts of forensic sciences after mass violence. In an effort to mitigate negative impacts of medico-legal or humanitarian interventions, the research described here sought to sensitize communities in Uganda about forensic methods. Findings from this study suggest that sensitization is necessary and desired, and that a multi-step approach can assist in managing expectations.

Forensic geophysics: ground penetrating radar (GPR) techniques and missing persons investigations.

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) investigations have the potential to non-destructively detect buried or hidden targets and are therefore often used in forensic research. This study presents a particular application of GPR methods to search for a missing person in a specific subsurface environment: a natural cave. The search for missing people in Italy is a problematic and delicate task that needs improvement. Results of this study highlight not only the ability to detect both hollow and forensic targets, but also precisely locate and define their geometries. Moreover, GPR findings efficiently focus archaeological excavation and body recovery in an exact area and help to minimise time digging in erroneous places.

Optimizing search strategies in mass grave location through the combination of digital technologies.

Efforts to locate missing persons resulting from conflict often centre of excavation. Although this approach is the only way to definitively confirm the presence of human remains, it can be costly and labour-intensive, particularly when large areas need to be searched. This paper discusses a wide range of emerging non-invasive digital methods implemented with a view to locating burials and mass graves and increase the excavation recovery rate of the Committee on Missing Persons in Cyprus (CMP). Aerial and terrestrial survey and subsequent 3D modelling were combined with geophysical survey in order to record sites, two of which were excavated to ground-truth the findings. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of these techniques in defining the search parameters of potential burial sites and prioritizing features for investigation. The nature of the collaboration between archaeologists, digital technologists, and forensic experts allowed mutual trust to be built between all parties, whilst also testing the effectiveness of the methods employed.

A novel application of terrestrial LIDAR to characterize elevation change at human grave surfaces in support of narrowing down possible unmarked grave locations.

Unmarked graves are difficult to locate once the ground surface no longer shows visible evidence of disturbance, posing significant challenges to missing person investigations. This research evaluates the use of terrestrial LIDAR point data for measuring localized elevation change at human grave surfaces. Three differently sized human graves, one control-pit, and surrounding undisturbed ground, were scanned four times between February 2013 and November 2014 using a tripod-mounted terrestrial laser scanner. All the disturbed surfaces exhibited measurable and localized elevation change, allowing for separation of disturbed and undisturbed ground. This study is the first to quantify elevation changes to human graves over time and demonstrates that terrestrial LIDAR may contribute to multi-modal data collection approach to improve unmarked grave detection.

An examination of the spatial distribution of the tissue fragments created during a single explosive attack.

Throughout the course of a forensic investigation following an explosive attack, the identification and recovery of tissue fragments is of extreme importance. There are few universally accepted methods to achieve this end. This project aims to explore this issue through the examination of the spatial distribution of the tissue fragments resulting from an explosive event. To address this, a two stage pilot study was conducted: first, a series of controlled explosions on porcine carcases was undertaken. Second, the data produced from these explosions were used to chart the spatial distribution of the tissue debris. In the controlled explosions, 3kg military grade explosive was chosen to create the maximum amount of fragmentation; this level of explosive also prevented the complete disappearance of forensic evidence through evaporation. Additionally, the blast created by military grade explosive is highly powerful and would mean that the maximum possible distance was achieved and would therefore allow the recorded distances and pattern spread to be a guideline for forensic recovery of associated with an explosive amount of an unknown size and quality. A total station was employed to record the location of the resulting forensic evidence, with the collected data analysed using R Studio. The observed patterns suggested that the distribution of remains is fairly consistent in trials under similar environmental conditions. This indicates potential for some general guidelines for forensic evidence collection (for example, the distance from the explosion that a search should cover).