Transmembrane protein TMEM230, regulator of metalloproteins and motor proteins in gliomas and gliosis.

Glial cells provide physical and chemical support and protection for neurons and for the extracellular compartments of neural tissue through secretion of soluble factors, insoluble scaffolds, and vesicles. Additionally, glial cells have regenerative capacity by remodeling their physical microenvironment and changing physiological properties of diverse cell types in their proximity. Various types of aberrant glial and macrophage cells are associated with human diseases, disorders, and malignancy. We previously demonstrated that transmembrane protein, TMEM230 has tissue revascularization and regenerating capacity by its ability to secrete pro-angiogenic factors and metalloproteinases, inducing endothelial cell sprouting and channel formation. In healthy normal neural tissue, TMEM230 is predominantly expressed in glial and marcophate cells, suggesting a prominent role in neural tissue homeostasis. TMEM230 regulation of the endomembrane system was supported by co-expression with RNASET2 (lysosome, mitochondria, and vesicles) and STEAP family members (Golgi complex). Intracellular trafficking and extracellular secretion of glial cellular components are associated with endocytosis, exocytosis and phagocytosis mediated by motor proteins. Trafficked components include metalloproteins, metalloproteinases, glycans, and glycoconjugate processing and digesting enzymes that function in phagosomes and vesicles to regulate normal neural tissue microenvironment, homeostasis, stress response, and repair following neural tissue injury or degeneration. Aberrantly high sustained levels TMEM230 promotes metalloprotein expression, trafficking and secretion which contribute to tumor associated infiltration and hypervascularization of high tumor grade gliomas. Following injury of the central nervous or peripheral systems, transcient regulated upregulation of TMEM230 promotes tissue wound healing, remodeling and revascularization by activating glial and macrophage generated microchannels/microtubules (referred to as vascular mimicry) and blood vessel sprouting and branching. Our results support that TMEM230 may act as a master regulator of motor protein mediated trafficking and compartmentalization of a large class of metalloproteins in gliomas and gliosis.

Coordination, cooperation, competition, crowding and congestion of molecular motors: Theoretical models and computer simulations.

Cytoskeletal motor proteins are biological nanomachines that convert chemical energy into mechanical work to carry out various functions such as cell division, cell motility, cargo transport, muscle contraction, beating of cilia and flagella, and ciliogenesis. Most of these processes are driven by the collective operation of several motors in the crowded viscous intracellular environment. Imaging and manipulation of the motors with powerful experimental probes have been complemented by mathematical analysis and computer simulations of the corresponding theoretical models. In this article, we illustrate some of the key theoretical approaches used to understand how coordination, cooperation and competition of multiple motors in the crowded intra-cellular environment drive the processes that are essential for biological function of a cell. In spite of the focus on theory, experimentalists will also find this article as an useful summary of the progress made so far in understanding multiple motor systems.

A model of microtubule depolymerization by kinesin-8 motor proteins.

The dimeric kinesin-8 motors have the biological function of depolymerizing microtubules (MTs) from the plus end. However, the molecular mechanism of the depolymerization promoted by the kinesin-8 motors is still undetermined. Here, a model is proposed for the MT depolymerization by the kinesin-8 motors. Based on the model, the dynamics of depolymerization in the presence of the single motor at the MT plus end under no load and under load on the motor is studied theoretically. The dynamics of depolymerization in the presence of multiple motors at the MT plus end is also analyzed. The theoretical results explain well the available experimental data. The studies can also be applicable to other families of kinesin motors such as kinesin-13 mitotic centromere-associated kinesin motors that have the ability to depolymerize MTs.

KIF2A correlates with lymphovascular invasion and higher tumor stage, and can be used to predict worse prognosis in patients with endometrial carcinoma.

Kinesin family protein 2A (KIF2A) is a microtubule depolymerase that participates in the progression of various cancers; however, its clinical utility in endometrial carcinoma (EC) remains unclear. The aim of the present study was to assess KIF2A expression and its relationship with prognosis in patients with EC. Data from 230 patients with EC who underwent tumor resection were reviewed in the current, retrospective study. KIF2A expression was measured in 230 formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) specimens of tumor tissue and 50 FFPE specimens of non-tumor tissue using immunohistochemistry (IHC). KIF2A expression was elevated in EC tumor tissue vs. non-tumor tissue (P<0.001). Furthermore, tumor KIF2A expression was linked with lymphovascular invasion (P=0.004) and higher International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) stage (P=0.001). High tumor KIF2A expression (IHC score>3) was correlated with shorter disease-free survival (DFS; P=0.014) and overall survival (OS; P=0.012). Moreover, the time-dependent receiver operating characteristic curves revealed that tumor KIF2A expression had an acceptable use for estimating the relapse and death risks at each timepoint within 6 years, with each area under the curve remaining stable at ≥0.7. Notably, tumor KIF2A expression (high vs. low) independently forecast shorter DFS (hazard ratio, 2.506; P=0.013), but not OS (P>0.05). Furthermore, information from The Human Protein Atlas database indicated that high tumor KIF2A expression was associated with worse OS in patients with EC (P=0.027). Tumor KIF2A is not only associated with lymphovascular invasion and higher FIGO stage, but also reflects unfavorable survival in patients with EC.

The kinesin-3 KIF1C undergoes liquid-liquid phase separation for accumulation of specific transcripts at the cell periphery.

In cells, mRNAs are transported to and positioned at subcellular areas to locally regulate protein production. Recent studies have identified the kinesin-3 family member motor protein KIF1C as an RNA transporter. However, it is not clear how KIF1C interacts with RNA molecules. Here, we show that the KIF1C C-terminal tail domain contains an intrinsically disordered region (IDR) that drives liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS). KIF1C forms dynamic puncta in cells that display physical properties of liquid condensates and incorporate RNA molecules in a sequence-selective manner. Endogenous KIF1C forms condensates in cellular protrusions, where mRNAs are enriched in an IDR-dependent manner. Purified KIF1C tail constructs undergo LLPS in vitro at near-endogenous nM concentrations and in the absence of crowding agents and can directly recruit RNA molecules. Overall, our work uncovers an intrinsic correlation between the LLPS activity of KIF1C and its role in mRNA positioning. In addition, the LLPS activity of KIF1C's tail represents a new mode of motor-cargo interaction that extends our current understanding of cytoskeletal motor proteins.

Insulin signaling accelerates the anterograde movement of Rab4 vesicles in axons through Klp98A/KIF16B recruitment via Vps34-PI3Kinase.

Rab4 GTPase organizes endosomal sorting essential for maintaining the balance between recycling and degradative pathways. Rab4 localizes to many cargos whose transport in neurons is critical for regulating neurotransmission and neuronal health. Furthermore, elevated Rab4 levels in the CNS are associated with synaptic atrophy and neurodegeneration in Drosophila and humans, respectively. However, how the transport of Rab4-associated vesicles is regulated in neurons remains unknown. Using in vivo time-lapse imaging of Drosophila larvae, we show that activation of insulin signaling via Dilp2 and dInR increases the anterograde velocity, run length, and flux of Rab4 vesicles in the axons. Molecularly, we show that activation of neuronal insulin signaling further activates Vps34, elevates the levels of PI(3)P on Rab4-associated vesicles, recruits Klp98A (a PI(3)P-binding kinesin-3 motor) and activates their anterograde transport. Together, these observations delineate the role of insulin signaling in regulating axonal transport and synaptic homeostasis.

Ciliary intrinsic mechanisms regulate dynamic ciliary extracellular vesicle release from sensory neurons.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are submicron membranous structures and key mediators of intercellular communication.1,2 Recent research has highlighted roles for cilia-derived EVs in signal transduction, underscoring their importance as bioactive extracellular organelles containing conserved ciliary signaling proteins.3,4 Members of the transient receptor potential (TRP) channel polycystin-2 (PKD-2) family are found in ciliary EVs of the green algae Chlamydomonas and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans5,6 and in EVs in the mouse embryonic node and isolated from human urine.7,8 In C. elegans, PKD-2 is expressed in male-specific EV-releasing sensory neurons, which extend ciliary tips to ciliary pore and directly release EVs into the environment.6,9 Males release EVs in a mechanically stimulated manner, regulate EV cargo content in response to mating partners, and deposit PKD-2::GFP-labeled EVs on the vulval cuticle of hermaphrodites during mating.9,10 Combined, our findings suggest that ciliary EV release is a dynamic process. Herein, we identify mechanisms controlling dynamic EV shedding using time-lapse imaging. Cilia can sustain the release of PKD-2-labeled EVs for 2 h. This extended release doesn't require neuronal transmission. Instead, ciliary intrinsic mechanisms regulate PKD-2 ciliary membrane replenishment and dynamic EV release. The kinesin-3 motor kinesin-like protein 6 (KLP-6) is necessary for initial and extended EV release, while the transition zone protein NPHP-4 is required only for sustained EV release. The dynamic replenishment of PKD-2 at the ciliary tip is key to sustained EV release. Our study provides a comprehensive portrait of real-time ciliary EV release and mechanisms supporting cilia as proficient EV release platforms.

The microtubular preprophase band recruits Myosin XI to the cortical division site to guide phragmoplast expansion during plant cytokinesis.

In plant vegetative tissues, cell division employs a mitotic microtubule array called the preprophase band (PPB) that marks the cortical division site. This transient cytoskeletal array imprints the spatial information to be read by the cytokinetic phragmoplast at later stages of mitotic cell division. In Arabidopsis thaliana, we discovered that the PPB recruited the Myosin XI motor MYA1/Myo11F to the cortical division site, where it joined microtubule-associated proteins and motors to form a ring of prominent cytoskeletal assemblies that received the expanding phragmoplast. Such a myosin localization pattern at the cortical division site was dependent on the POK1/2 Kinesin-12 motors. This regulatory function of MYA1/Myo11F in phragmoplast guidance was dependent on intact actin filaments. The discovery of these cytoskeletal motor assemblies pinpoints a mechanism underlying how two dynamic cytoskeletal networks work in concert to govern PPB-dependent division plane orientation in flowering plants.

Forebrain commissure formation in zebrafish embryo requires the binding of KLC1 to CRMP2.

Formation of the corpus callosum (CC), anterior commissure (AC), and postoptic commissure (POC), connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, is crucial for cerebral functioning. Collapsin response mediator protein 2 (CRMP2) has been suggested to be associated with the mechanisms governing this formation, based on knockout studies in mice and knockdown/knockout studies in zebrafish. Previously, we reported two cases of non-synonymous CRMP2 variants with S14R and R565C substitutions. Among the, the R565C substitution (p.R565C) was caused by the novel CRMP2 mutation c.1693C > T, and the patient presented with intellectual disability accompanied by CC hypoplasia. In this study, we demonstrate that crmp2 mRNA could rescue AC and POC formation in crmp2-knockdown zebrafish, whereas the mRNA with the R566C mutation could not. Zebrafish CRMP2 R566C corresponds to human CRMP2 R565C. Further experiments with transfected cultured cells indicated that CRMP2 with the R566C mutation could not bind to kinesin light chain 1 (KLC1). Knockdown of klc1a in zebrafish resulted in defective AC and POC formation, revealing a genetic interaction with crmp2. These findings suggest that the CRMP2 R566C mutant fails to bind to KLC1, preventing axonal elongation and leading to defective AC and POC formation in zebrafish and CC formation defects in humans. Our study highlights the importance of the interaction between CRMP2 and KLC1 in the formation of the forebrain commissures, revealing a novel mechanism associated with CRMP2 mutations underlying human neurodevelopmental abnormalities.

Plant Kinesin Repertoires Expand with New Domain Architecture and Contract with the Loss of Flagella.

Kinesins are eukaryotic microtubule motor proteins subdivided into conserved families with distinct functional roles. While many kinesin families are widespread in eukaryotes, each organismal lineage maintains a unique kinesin repertoire composed of many families with distinct numbers of genes. Previous genomic surveys indicated that land plant kinesin repertoires differ markedly from other eukaryotes. To determine when repertoires diverged during plant evolution, we performed robust phylogenomic analyses of kinesins in 24 representative plants, two algae, two animals, and one yeast. These analyses show that kinesin repertoires expand and contract coincident with major shifts in the biology of algae and land plants. One kinesin family and five subfamilies, each defined by unique domain architectures, emerged in the green algae. Four of those kinesin groups expanded in ancestors of modern land plants, while six other kinesin groups were lost in the ancestors of pollen-bearing plants. Expansions of different kinesin families and subfamilies occurred in moss and angiosperm lineages. Other kinesin families remained stable and did not expand throughout plant evolution. Collectively these data support a radiation of kinesin domain architectures in algae followed by differential positive and negative selection on kinesins families and subfamilies in different lineages of land plants.

Sarcopenia-related changes in serum GLP-1 level affect myogenic differentiation.

BACKGROUND: Sarcopenia, a group of muscle-related disorders, leads to the gradual decline and weakening of skeletal muscle over time. Recognizing the pivotal role of gastrointestinal conditions in maintaining metabolic homeostasis within skeletal muscle, we hypothesize that the effectiveness of the myogenic programme is influenced by the levels of gastrointestinal hormones in the bloodstream, and this connection is associated with the onset of sarcopenia. METHODS: We first categorized 145 individuals from the Emergency Room of Taipei Veterans General Hospital into sarcopenia and non-sarcopenia groups, following the criteria established by the Asian Working Group for Sarcopenia. A thorough examination of specific gastrointestinal hormone levels in plasma was conducted to identify the one most closely associated with sarcopenia. Techniques, including immunofluorescence, western blotting, glucose uptake assays, seahorse real-time cell metabolic analysis, flow cytometry analysis, kinesin-1 activity assays and qPCR analysis, were applied to investigate its impacts and mechanisms on myogenic differentiation. RESULTS: Individuals in the sarcopenia group exhibited elevated plasma levels of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) at 1021.5 ± 313.5 pg/mL, in contrast to non-sarcopenic individuals with levels at 351.1 ± 39.0 pg/mL (P < 0.05). Although it is typical for GLP-1 levels to rise post-meal and subsequently drop naturally, detecting higher GLP-1 levels in starving individuals with sarcopenia raised the possibility of GLP-1 influencing myogenic differentiation in skeletal muscle. Further investigation using a cell model revealed that GLP-1 (1, 10 and 100 ng/mL) dose-dependently suppressed the expression of the myogenic marker, impeding myocyte fusion and the formation of polarized myotubes during differentiation. GLP-1 significantly inhibited the activity of the microtubule motor kinesin-1, interfering with the translocation of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) to the cell membrane and the dispersion of mitochondria. These impairments subsequently led to a reduction in glucose uptake to 0.81 ± 0.04 fold (P < 0.01) and mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production from 25.24 ± 1.57 pmol/min to 18.83 ± 1.11 pmol/min (P < 0.05). Continuous exposure to GLP-1, even under insulin induction, attenuated the elevated glucose uptake. CONCLUSIONS: The elevated GLP-1 levels observed in individuals with sarcopenia are associated with a reduction in myogenic differentiation. The impact of GLP-1 on both the membrane translocation of GLUT4 and the dispersion of mitochondria significantly hinders glucose uptake and the production of mitochondrial ATP necessary for the myogenic programme. These findings point us towards strategies to establish the muscle-gut axis, particularly in the context of sarcopenia. Additionally, these results present the potential of identifying relevant diagnostic biomarkers.

A Model for Chemomechanical Coupling of Kinesin-3 Motor.

Introduction: Kinesin-3 motor, which is in the monomeric and inactive form in solution, after cargo-induced dimerization can step on microtubules towards the plus end with a high velocity and a supperprocessivity, which is responsible for transporting the cargo in axons and dendrites. The kinesin-3 motor has a large initial landing rate to microtubules and spends the majority of its stepping cycle in a one-head-bound state. Under the load the kinesin-3 motor can dissociate more readily than the kinesin-1 motor. Methods: To understand the physical origin of the peculiar features for the kinesin-3 motor, a model is presented here for its chemomechanical coupling. Based on the model the dynamics of the motor under no load, under the ramping load and under the constant load is studied analytically. Results: The theoretical results explain well the available experimental data under no load and under the ramping load. For comparison, the corresponding available experimental data for the kinesin-1 motor under the ramping load are also explained. The predicted results of the velocity, dissociation rate and run length versus the constant load for the kinesin-3 motor are provided. Conclusions: The study has strong implications for the chemomechanical coupling mechanism of the kinesin-3 dimer. The origin of the kinesin-3 dimer in the predominant one-head-bound state is due to the fact that the rate of ATP transition to ADP in the trailing head is much larger than that of ADP release from the MT-bound head. The study shows that the kinesin-3 ADP-head has an evidently longer interaction distance with microtubule than the kinesin-1 ADP-head, explaining why in the initial ADP state the kinesin-3 motor has the much larger landing rate than the kinesin-1 motor and why under the load the kinesin-3 motor can dissociate more readily than the kinesin-1 motor. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12195-024-00795-1.

The HSV-1 pUL37 protein promotes cell invasion by regulating the kinesin-1 motor.

Neurotropic alphaherpesviruses, including herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), recruit microtubule motor proteins to invade cells. The incoming viral particle traffics to nuclei in a two-step process. First, the particle uses the dynein-dynactin motor to sustain transport to the centrosome. In neurons, this step is responsible for long-distance retrograde axonal transport and is an important component of the neuroinvasive property shared by these viruses. Second, a kinesin-dependent mechanism redirects the particle from the centrosome to the nucleus. We have reported that the kinesin motor used during the second step of invasion is assimilated into nascent virions during the previous round of infection. Here, we report that the HSV-1 pUL37 tegument protein suppresses the assimilated kinesin-1 motor during retrograde axonal transport. Region 2 (R2) of pUL37 was required for suppression and functioned independently of the autoinhibitory mechanism native to kinesin-1. Furthermore, the motor domain and proximal coiled coil of kinesin-1 were sufficient for HSV-1 assimilation, pUL37 suppression, and nuclear trafficking. pUL37 localized to the centrosome, the site of assimilated kinesin-1 activation during infection, when expressed in cells in the absence of other viral proteins; however, pUL37 did not suppress kinesin-1 in this context. These results indicate that the pUL37 tegument protein spatially and temporally regulates kinesin-1 via the amino-terminal motor region in the context of the incoming viral particle.

Neurons dispose of hyperactive kinesin into glial cells for clearance.

Microtubule-based kinesin motor proteins are crucial for intracellular transport, but their hyperactivation can be detrimental for cellular functions. This study investigated the impact of a constitutively active ciliary kinesin mutant, OSM-3CA, on sensory cilia in C. elegans. Surprisingly, we found that OSM-3CA was absent from cilia but underwent disposal through membrane abscission at the tips of aberrant neurites. Neighboring glial cells engulf and eliminate the released OSM-3CA, a process that depends on the engulfment receptor CED-1. Through genetic suppressor screens, we identified intragenic mutations in the OSM-3CA motor domain and mutations inhibiting the ciliary kinase DYF-5, both of which restored normal cilia in OSM-3CA-expressing animals. We showed that conformational changes in OSM-3CA prevent its entry into cilia, and OSM-3CA disposal requires its hyperactivity. Finally, we provide evidence that neurons also dispose of hyperactive kinesin-1 resulting from a clinic variant associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, suggesting a widespread mechanism for regulating hyperactive kinesins.

Role of microRNAs in tumor progression by regulation of kinesin motor proteins.

Aberrant cell proliferation is one of the main characteristics of tumor cells that can be affected by many cellular processes and signaling pathways. Kinesin superfamily proteins (KIFs) are motor proteins that are involved in cytoplasmic transportations and chromosomal segregation during cell proliferation. Therefore, regulation of the KIF functions as vital factors in chromosomal stability is necessary to maintain normal cellular homeostasis and proliferation. KIF deregulations have been reported in various cancers. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) and signaling pathways are important regulators of KIF proteins. MiRNAs have key roles in regulation of the cell proliferation, migration, and apoptosis. In the present review, we discussed the role of miRNAs in tumor biology through the regulation of KIF proteins. It has been shown that miRNAs have mainly a tumor suppressor function via the KIF targeting. This review can be an effective step to introduce the miRNAs/KIFs axis as a probable therapeutic target in tumor cells.

Characterization of the disease-causing mechanism of KIF3B mutations from ciliopathy patients.

The heterodimeric kinesin-2 motor (KIF3A/KIF3B with accessory protein KAP3) drives intraflagellar transport, essential for ciliogenesis and ciliary function. Three point mutations in the KIF3B subunit have recently been linked to disease in humans (E250Q and L523P) and Bengal cats (A334T) (Cogné et al., Am. J. Hum. Genet., 2020, 106, 893-904). Patients display retinal atrophy and, in some cases, other ciliopathy phenotypes. However, the molecular mechanism leading to disease is currently unknown. Here, we used Kif3a -/- ;Kif3b -/- (knockout) 3T3 cells, which cannot make cilia, to characterize these mutations. While reexpression of KIF3B(E250Q) and KIF3B(L523P) did not rescue ciliogenesis, reexpression of wildtype or KIF3B(A334T) restored ciliogenesis to wildtype levels. Fluorescent tagging revealed that the E250Q mutant decorated microtubules and thus is a rigor mutation. The L523P mutation, in the alpha-helical stalk domain, surprisingly did not affect formation of the KIF3A/KIF3B/KAP3 complex but instead impaired motility along microtubules. Lastly, expression of the A334T motor was reduced in comparison to all other motors, and this motor displayed an impaired ability to disperse the Golgi complex when artificially linked to this high-load cargo. In summary, this work uses cell-based assays to elucidate the molecular effects of disease-causing mutations in the KIF3B subunit on the kinesin-2 holoenzyme.

Modeling Studies of the Mechanism of Context-Dependent Bidirectional Movements of Kinesin-14 Motors.

Kinesin-14s, a subfamily of the large superfamily of kinesin motor proteins, function mainly in spindle assembly and maintenance during mitosis and meiosis. KlpA from Aspergillus nidulans and GiKIN14a from Giardia intestinalis are two types of kinesin-14s. Available experimental results puzzlingly showed that while KlpA moves preferentially toward the minus end in microtubule-gliding setups and inside parallel microtubule overlaps, it moves preferentially toward the plus end on single microtubules. More puzzlingly, the insertion of an extra polypeptide linker in the central region of the neck stalk switches the motility direction of KlpA on single microtubules to the minus end. Prior experimental results showed that GiKIN14a moves preferentially toward the minus end on single microtubules in either tailless or full-length forms. The tail not only greatly enhances the processivity but also accelerates the ATPase rate and velocity of GiKIN14a. The insertion of an extra polypeptide linker in the central region of the neck stalk reduces the ATPase rate of GiKIN14a. However, the underlying mechanism of these puzzling dynamical features for KlpA and GiKIN14a is unclear. Here, to understand this mechanism, the dynamics of KlpA and GiKIN14a were studied theoretically on the basis of the proposed model, incorporating potential changes between the kinesin head and microtubule, as well as the potential between the tail and microtubule. The theoretical results quantitatively explain the available experimental results and provide predicted results. It was found that the elasticity of the neck stalk determines the directionality of KlpA on single microtubules and affects the ATPase rate and velocity of GiKIN14a on single microtubules.

The types and numbers of kinesins and dyneins transporting endocytic cargoes modulate their motility and response to tau.

Organelles and vesicular cargoes are transported by teams of kinesin and dynein motors along microtubules. We isolated endocytic organelles from cells at different stages of maturation and reconstituted their motility along microtubules in vitro. We asked how the sets of motors transporting a cargo determine its motility and response to the microtubule-associated protein tau. Here, we find that phagosomes move in both directions along microtubules, but the directional bias changes during maturation. Early phagosomes exhibit retrograde-biased transport while late phagosomes are directionally unbiased. Correspondingly, early and late phagosomes are bound by different numbers and combinations of kinesins-1, -2, -3, and dynein. Tau stabilizes microtubules and directs transport within neurons. While single-molecule studies show that tau differentially regulates the motility of kinesins and dynein in vitro, less is known about its role in modulating the trafficking of endogenous cargoes transported by their native teams of motors. Previous studies showed that tau preferentially inhibits kinesin motors, which biases late phagosome transport towards the microtubule minus-end. Here, we show that tau strongly inhibits long-range, dynein-mediated motility of early phagosomes. Tau reduces forces generated by teams of dynein motors on early phagosomes and accelerates dynein unbinding under load. Thus, cargoes differentially respond to tau, where dynein complexes on early phagosomes are more sensitive to tau inhibition than those on late phagosomes. Mathematical modeling further explains how small changes in the number of kinesins and dynein on cargoes impact the net directionality but also that cargoes with different sets of motors respond differently to tau.

Kinesin-7 CENP-E in tumorigenesis: Chromosome instability, spindle assembly checkpoint, and applications.

Kinesin motors are a large family of molecular motors that walk along microtubules to fulfill many roles in intracellular transport, microtubule organization, and chromosome alignment. Kinesin-7 CENP-E (Centromere protein E) is a chromosome scaffold-associated protein that is located in the corona layer of centromeres, which participates in kinetochore-microtubule attachment, chromosome alignment, and spindle assembly checkpoint. Over the past 3 decades, CENP-E has attracted great interest as a promising new mitotic target for cancer therapy and drug development. In this review, we describe expression patterns of CENP-E in multiple tumors and highlight the functions of CENP-E in cancer cell proliferation. We summarize recent advances in structural domains, roles, and functions of CENP-E in cell division. Notably, we describe the dual functions of CENP-E in inhibiting and promoting tumorigenesis. We summarize the mechanisms by which CENP-E affects tumorigenesis through chromosome instability and spindle assembly checkpoints. Finally, we overview and summarize the CENP-E-specific inhibitors, mechanisms of drug resistances and their applications.

Dynamic localization of the chromosomal passenger complex in trypanosomes is controlled by the orphan kinesins KIN-A and KIN-B.

The chromosomal passenger complex (CPC) is an important regulator of cell division, which shows dynamic subcellular localization throughout mitosis, including kinetochores and the spindle midzone. In traditional model eukaryotes such as yeasts and humans, the CPC consists of the catalytic subunit Aurora B kinase, its activator INCENP, and the localization module proteins Borealin and Survivin. Intriguingly, Aurora B and INCENP as well as their localization pattern are conserved in kinetoplastids, an evolutionarily divergent group of eukaryotes that possess unique kinetochore proteins and lack homologs of Borealin or Survivin. It is not understood how the kinetoplastid CPC assembles nor how it is targeted to its subcellular destinations during the cell cycle. Here, we identify two orphan kinesins, KIN-A and KIN-B, as bona fide CPC proteins in Trypanosoma brucei, the kinetoplastid parasite that causes African sleeping sickness. KIN-A and KIN-B form a scaffold for the assembly of the remaining CPC subunits. We show that the C-terminal unstructured tail of KIN-A interacts with the KKT8 complex at kinetochores, while its N-terminal motor domain promotes CPC translocation to spindle microtubules. Thus, the KIN-A:KIN-B complex constitutes a unique 'two-in-one' CPC localization module, which directs the CPC to kinetochores from S phase until metaphase and to the central spindle in anaphase. Our findings highlight the evolutionary diversity of CPC proteins and raise the possibility that kinesins may have served as the original transport vehicles for Aurora kinases in early eukaryotes.