HIV-1 transmission dynamics among people who inject drugs on the US/Mexico border during the COVID-19 pandemic: a prosepective cohort study.

Background: We examined HIV prevalence and transmission dynamics among people who inject drugs in the U.S./Mexico border region during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: People who inject drugs aged ≥18 years from 3 groups were recruited: people who inject drugs who live in San Diego (SD) and engaged in cross-border drug use in Tijuana, Mexico (SD CBDUs), and people who inject drugs in SD and Tijuana (TJ) who did not engage in cross-border drug use (NCBDUs). We computed HIV prevalence at baseline and bivariate incidence-density rates (IR) at 18-month follow-up. Bayesian phylogenetic analysis was used to identify local transmission clusters, estimate their age, and effective reproductive number (Re) over time within the clusters. Findings: At baseline (n = 612), 26% of participants were female, 9% engaged in sex work, and HIV prevalence was 8% (4% SD CBDU, 4% SD NCBDU, 16% TJ NCBDU). Nine HIV seroconversions occurred over 18 months, IR: 1.357 per 100 person-years (95% CI: 0.470, 2.243); 7 in TJ NCBDU and 2 in SD CBDU. Out of 16 identified phylogenetic clusters, 9 (56%) had sequences from both the U.S. and Mexico (mixed-country). The age of three youngest mixed-country dyads (2018-2021) overlapped with the COVID-related US-Mexico border closure in 2020. One large mixed-country cluster (N = 15) continued to grow during the border closure (Re = 4.8, 95% Highest Posterior Density (HPD) 1.5-9.1) with 47% engaging in sex work. Interpretation: Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic and the border closure, cross-border HIV clusters grew. Efforts to end the HIV epidemic in the U.S. should take into account cross-border HIV-1 transmission from Tijuana. Mobile harm reduction services and coordination with municipal HIV programs to initiate anti-retroviral therapy and pre-exposure prophylaxisis are needed to reduce transmission. Funding: This research was supported by the James B. Pendleton Charitable Trust and the San Diego Center for AIDS Research.

Intersections between syndemic conditions and stages along the continuum of overdose risk among women who inject drugs in Mexicali, Mexico.

BACKGROUND: Research on women who inject drugs is scarce in low- and middle-income countries. Women experience unique harms such as sexism and sexual violence which translate into negative health outcomes. The present work aims to provide insight into the experiences of women who inject drugs at the US-Mexico border to identify social and health-related risk factors for overdose to guide harm reduction interventions across the Global South. METHODS: We recruited 25 women ≥ 18 years of age accessing harm reduction and sexual health services at a non-governmental harm reduction organization, "Verter", in Mexicali, Mexico. We employed purposeful sampling to recruit women who inject drugs who met eligibility criteria. We collected quantitative survey data and in-depth interview data. Analyses of both data sources involved the examination of descriptive statistics and thematic analysis, respectively, and were guided by the syndemic and continuum of overdose risk frameworks. RESULTS: Survey data demonstrated reports of initiating injection drug use at a young age, experiencing homelessness, engaging in sex work, being rejected by family members, experiencing physical violence, injecting in public spaces, and experiencing repeated overdose events. Interview data provided evidence of stigma and discrimination toward women, a lack of safe spaces and support systems, risk of overdose-related harms, sexual violence, and the overall need for harm reduction services. CONCLUSION: Women who inject drugs in Mexicali describe experiences of violence, overdose, and public injecting. Women are particularly vulnerable in the Mexicali context, as this area faces a noticeable lack of health and social services. Evidenced-based harm reduction strategies such as safe consumption sites and overdose prevention strategies (e.g., naloxone distribution and training) may benefit this population. Evidence from local organizations could help close the gap in service provision in low-resource settings like Mexico, where government action is almost nonexistent.

Hepatitis C screening and detection program in a large population: Epidemiological transition and characterization of the disease.

INTRODUCTION: Chronic hepatitis C (CHC) is considered an important public health challenge. Traditionally identified risk factors have undergone an epidemiological transition where other risk factors have become the main cause of new infections. OBJECTIVE: To describe risk factors associated to hepatitis C positivity through the evaluation of the epidemiological profile in hepatitis-C high-risk populations. METHODS: Cross-sectional study was conducted as part of an HCV screening program in Mexican population. All participants answered an HCV risk-factor questionnaire and took a rapid test (RT). All patients reactive to the test were subject to HCV PCR (polymerase chain reaction) confirmation. A logistic regression model was used to examine associations between HCV infection and risk factors. RESULTS: The study included 297 631 participants that completed a risk factor questionnaire and underwent an HCV rapid test (RT). In total, 12 840 (4.5%) were reactive to RT and 9257 (3.2% of participants) were confirmed as positives by PCR test. Of these, 72.9% had at least one risk factor and 10.8% were in prison. Most common risk factors were history of acupuncture/tattooing/piercing (21%), intravenous drug use (15%) and high-risk sexual practices (12%). Logistic regressions found that having at least one risk factor increased the probability of having an HCV-positive result by 20% (OR = 1.20, 95% CI: 1.15-1.26), compared to the population without risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: We identified 3.2% of HCV-viremic subjects, all associated with risk factors and older age. Screening and diagnosis of HCV in high-risk populations (including underserved populations) should be more efficient.

COVID-19 vaccine uptake among people who inject drugs in Tijuana Mexico.

Background: SARS-CoV-2 prevalence is elevated among people who inject drugs (PWID). In Tijuana, Mexico, COVID-19 vaccines became available to the general population in June 2021, but uptake among PWID was <10%. We studied COVID-19 vaccine uptake among PWID in Tijuana following implementation of a pop-up vaccination clinic. Methods: Beginning in October, 2020, PWID in Tijuana aged ≥18 years were enrolled into a longitudinal cohort study. At baseline and semi-annually, participants underwent interviewer-administered interviews on health behaviors and COVID-19 exposures through April 5, 2022. From June 21-September 20, 2021, staff referred PWID to a temporary COVID-19 vaccine pop-up clinic that was coincidentally established near the study office. Participants attending the clinic completed a short interview on barriers to vaccination and were offered facilitated access to free Janssen® COVID-19 vaccine. All participants were reimbursed $5 for this interview, regardless of whether or not they chose to be vaccinated. Poisson regression was used to evaluate the effect of the pop-up clinic on COVID-19 vaccination uptake, controlling forpotential confounders. Results: Of 344 participants, 136 (39.5%) reported having received at least one COVID-19 vaccine dose during the 10 months follow-up period, of whom 113 (83.1%) received vaccine at the pop-up clinic and 23 (16.9%) elsewhere. One third of those receiving COVID-19 vaccine during the pop-up clinic were previously vaccine hesitant. Attending the pop-up clinic was independently associated with higher rates of COVID-19 vaccination Adjusted Rate Ratio (AdjRR: 9.15; 95% CI: 5.68-14.74). Conclusions: We observed a significant increase in COVID-19 vaccine uptake associated with attending a temporary pop-up vaccine clinic in Tijuana suggesting that efforts to improve vaccination in this vulnerable population should include convenient locations and staff who have experience working with substance using populations. Since COVID-19 vaccination rates remain sub-optimal, sustained interventions to increase uptake are needed.

HIV Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT-HIV) effectiveness for sexual risk-reduction among key populations: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Background: HIV disproportionately affects people who inject drugs, transgender people, sex workers, men who have sex with men, and incarcerated people. Recognized as key populations (KP), these groups face increased impact of HIV infection and reduced access to health assistance. In 1990, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention organized technical guidance on HIV Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT-HIV), with subsequent trials comparing intervention methodologies, no longer recommending this strategy. However, KP needs have not been explicitly considered. Methods: We assessed VCT-HIV effectiveness for sexual risk-reduction among KP (PROSPERO 2020 CRD42020088816). We searched Pubmed, EMBASE, Global Health, Scopus, PsycINFO, and Web of Science for peer-reviewed, controlled trials from February, 2020, to April, 2022. We screened the references list and contacted the main authors, extracted data through Covidence, applied the Cochrane Risk-of-Bias tool, and performed the meta-analysis using Review Manager. Findings: We identified 17 eligible trials, including 10,916 participants and evaluated HIV risk behaviors. When compared to baseline, VCT-HIV reduced unsafe sex frequency (Z=5.40; p<0.00001, I²=0%). Interpretation: While our meta-analysis identified VCT-HIV as protective for sexual risk behaviors for among KP, the results are limited to MSM and PWID, demonstrating the paucity of data on the other KP. Also, it highlights the importance of applying a clear VCT-HIV guideline as well as properly training the counselors. Funding: Research funded by Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPQ/MS-DIAHV N° 24/2019), and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior.

Transition from first illegal drug use to first injection among people who inject drugs in Northern Mexico: A retrospective survival analysis / Transición del primer consumo de drogas ilegales a la primera inyección entre las personas que se inyectan drogas en el norte de México: un análisis retrospectivo de supervivencia

Abstract Introduction There is little information in Mexico about the transition to injecting drugs among drug users in cities other than Tijuana. Objective We compare characteristics of the onset of drug use and first injection among people who inject drugs (PWID) from Ciudad Juárez and Hermosillo, two cities of Northern Mexico and identify factors associated with faster rates of transition from first drug use to the first injection. Method 841 PWID were interviewed in 2012 in Ciudad Juárez (n = 445) and Hermosillo (n = 396). Using lifetables, we describe timing at the onset of drug use and first injection. Cox regression analysis was used to determine factors associated with the transition hazard to first injection. Results Median age at onset of drug use was 15.5 years old (standard deviation [SD] = 5.73). The median age at first injection was 21.30 (SD = 7.22). The median duration-time between first drug use and transition to injection was 4.8 years (SD = 5.6). Controlling for sociodemographics, factors that increase the hazard of transitioning to injection are age at onset of drug use (adjusted-hazard-rate [AHR] = 1.04, 95% confidence-interval CI [1.03, 1.05], p<.01) having used cocaine, heroin, or methamphetamine at the onset of drug use (AHR = 1.14, 95% CI [1.03, 1.27], p = .01), and having received assistance at first injection (AHR = 1.25, 95% CI [1.17, 1.33], p<.01). Discussion and conclusion Results show the need to enhance harm reduction programs among non-injecting drug users so as to prevent the spread of injecting drugs in Mexico.

Resumen Introducción Existe poca información en México sobre los calendarios al uso inyectado de drogas en ciudades distintas a Tijuana. Objetivo Comparamos las características del inicio del consumo de drogas y la primera inyección entre las personas que se inyectan drogas (PID) de Hermosillo y Ciudad Juárez e identificamos factores asociados con la transición a la primera inyección. Método En 2012 encuestamos a 841 PID en Ciudad Juárez (n = 445) y Hermosillo (n = 396). Utilizando tablas de vida analizamos las edades al primer uso de sustancias ilícitas y de la primera inyección. Ajustamos un modelo de regresión Cox para determinar los factores asociados con el riesgo de transición a la primera inyección. Resultados La edad mediana al primer consumo de drogas fue 15.5 años (desviación estándar [DE] = 5.73). La edad mediana a la primera inyección fue 21.30 (DE = 7.22). La duración mediana entre el primer uso de drogas ilícitas y la primera inyección fue de 4.8 años (DE = 5.6). Controlando los factores sociodemográficos, los factores que aumentan el riesgo de transición a la inyección son la edad al inicio de uso de drogas ([AHR] = 1.04, intervalo de confianza [IC] del 95% [1.03, 1.05], p<.01) uso de cocaína, heroína o metanfetamina como droga de inicio (AHR = 1.14, IC 95% [1.03, 1.27], p = .01) y haber recibido asistencia en la primera inyección (AHR = 1.25, IC 95% [1.17, 1.33], p<.01). Discusión y conclusión Es necesario mejorar los programas de reducción de daños entre los consumidores de drogas no inyectables para prevenir la propagación del uso inyectado de sustancias en el norte de México.

Overlapping Key Populations and HIV Transmission in Tijuana, Mexico: A Modelling Analysis of Epidemic Drivers.

Tijuana, Mexico, has a concentrated HIV epidemic among overlapping key populations (KPs) including people who inject drugs (PWID), female sex workers (FSW), their male clients, and men who have sex with men (MSM). We developed a dynamic HIV transmission model among these KPs to determine the extent to which their unmet prevention and treatment needs is driving HIV transmission. Over 2020-2029 we estimated the proportion of new infections acquired in each KP, and the proportion due to their unprotected risk behaviours. We estimate that 43.7% and 55.3% of new infections are among MSM and PWID, respectively, with FSW and their clients making-up < 10% of new infections. Projections suggest 93.8% of new infections over 2020-2029 will be due to unprotected sex between MSM or unsafe injecting drug use. Prioritizing interventions addressing sexual and injecting risks among MSM and PWID are critical to controlling HIV in Tijuana.

RESUMEN: Tijuana, México, tiene una epidemia de VIH concentrada en poblaciones claves (PC) superpuestas que incluyen personas que se inyectan drogas (PID), trabajadoras sexuales (MTS), sus clientes hombres, y hombres que tienen sexo con hombres (HSH). Desarrollamos un modelo dinámico de transmisión de VIH en estas PC para determinar hasta dónde sus necesidades no atendidas de prevención y tratamiento dirigen la transmisión del VIH. Para 2020­2029 estimamos la proporción de nuevas infecciones adquiridas en cada PC, y la proporción atribuida a sus comportamientos de riesgo sin protección. Estimamos que 43.7% y 55.3% de nuevas infecciones se dan en HSH y PID, respectivamente, con MTS y clientes conformando < 10% de nuevas infecciones. Las proyecciones sugieren que 93.8% de nuevas infecciones en 2020­2029 se deberán a sexo sin protección en HSH o uso inseguro de drogas inyectables. Dar prioridad a intervenciones que atienden los riesgos sexual y de inyección en HSH y PID es crítico para controlar el VIH en Tijuana.

The impact of recent homelessness on the provision of injection drug use initiation assistance among persons who inject drugs in Tijuana, Mexico and Vancouver, Canada.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between experiencing homelessness and assisting injection drug use (IDU) initiation among people who inject drugs (PWID) in Tijuana, Mexico and Vancouver, Canada. METHODS: We used self-reported questionnaire data collected semi-annually on PWID from Tijuana (n = 703) and Vancouver (n = 1551) between 2014 and 2017. Within each setting, the effect of recent (i.e., past six months) homelessness on recent provision of injection initiation assistance (i.e., helping anybody inject for the first time in the past six months) was estimated using inverse-probability-of-treatment (IPT)-weighted estimation of a marginal structural model. RESULTS: Across follow-up, the prevalence of recent homelessness at a given visit ranged from 11.6%-16.5% among Tijuana-based participants and 9.4%-18.9% among Vancouver-based participants; the prevalence of recent provision of injection initiation at a given follow-up visit was lower, ranging from 3.3%-5.4% in Tijuana and 2.5%-4.1% in Vancouver. Based on the IPT-weighted estimates, recent homelessness was associated with 66% greater odds among Tijuana-based PWID (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] = 1.66; 95% CI: 1.01-2.73) and 47% greater odds among Vancouver-based PWID (AOR = 1.47, 95% CI: 1.02-2.13) of providing injection initiation assistance over the same six-month period. CONCLUSION: We found that recently experiencing homelessness was associated with an increased likelihood of PWID reporting IDU initiation assistance over time in both Tijuana and Vancouver. Addressing homelessness may decrease the initiation of IDU via multiple pathways.

Cost-effectiveness of hepatitis C virus (HCV) elimination strategies among people who inject drugs (PWID) in Tijuana, Mexico.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: In Latin America, Mexico was first to launch a hepatitis C virus (HCV) elimination strategy, where people who inject drugs (PWID) are a main risk group for transmission. In Tijuana, HCV seroprevalence among PWID is > 90%, with minimal harm reduction (HR). We evaluated cost-effectiveness of strategies to achieve the incidence elimination target among PWID in Tijuana. METHODS: Modeling study using a dynamic, cost-effectiveness model of HCV transmission and progression among active and former PWID in Tijuana, to assess the cost-effectiveness of incidence elimination strategies from a health-care provider perspective. The model incorporated PWID transitions between HR stages (no HR, only opioid agonist therapy, only high coverage needle-syringe programs, both). Four strategies that could achieve the incidence target (80% reduction by 2030) were compared with the status quo (no intervention). The strategies incorporated the number of direct-acting anti-viral (DAA) treatments required with: (1) no HR scale-up, (2) HR scale-up from 2019 to 20% coverage among PWID, (3) HR to 40% coverage and (4) HR to 50% coverage. Costs (2019 US$) and health outcomes [disability-adjusted life years (DALYs)] were discounted 3% per year. Mean incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICER, $/DALY averted) were compared with one-time per capita gross domestic product (GDP) ($9698 in 2019) and purchasing power parity-adjusted per capita GDP ($4842-13 557) willingness-to-pay (WTP) thresholds. RESULTS: DAAs alone were the least costly elimination strategy [$173 million, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 126-238 million], but accrued fewer health benefits compared with strategies with HR. DAAs + 50% HR coverage among PWID averted the most DALYs but cost $265 million, 95% CI = 210-335 million). The optimal strategy was DAAs + 50% HR (ICER $6743/DALY averted compared to DAAs only) under the one-time per-capita GDP WTP ($9698). CONCLUSIONS: A combination of high-coverage harm reduction and hepatitis C virus treatment is the optimal cost-effective strategy to achieve the HCV incidence elimination goal in Mexico.

Is hepatitis C virus (HCV) elimination achievable among people who inject drugs in Tijuana, Mexico? A modeling analysis.

BACKGROUND: In 2019, Mexico became the first Latin American country committed to hepatitis C virus (HCV) elimination, but the amount of intervention scale-up required is unclear. In Tijuana, HCV among people who inject drugs (PWID) is high; yet there is minimal and intermittent harm reduction, and involuntary exposure to compulsory abstinence programs (CAP) occurs which is associated with increased HCV risk. We determined what combination intervention scale-up can achieve HCV elimination among current and former PWID in Tijuana. METHODS: We constructed a dynamic, deterministic model of HCV transmission, disease progression, and harm reduction among current and former PWID parameterized to Tijuana (~10,000 current PWID, 90% HCV seropositive, minimal opiate agonist therapy [OAT] or high coverage needle/syringe programs [HCNSP]). We evaluated the number of direct-acting antiviral (DAA) treatments needed from 2019 to achieve elimination targets (80% incidence reduction, 65% mortality reduction by 2030) with: (a) DAAs alone, (b) DAAs plus scale-up of OAT+HCNSP (up to 50% coverage of OAT and HCNSP separately, producing 25% of PWID receiving both), (c) DAAs plus CAP scale-up to 50%. Scenarios examined the number of DAAs required if prioritized to current PWID or provided regardless of current injection status, and impact of harm reduction interruptions. RESULTS: Modeling suggests among ~30,000 current and former PWID in Tijuana, 16,160 (95%CI: 12,770-21,610) have chronic HCV. DAA scale-up can achieve the incidence target, requiring 770 treatments/year (95%CI: 640-970) if prioritized to current PWID. 40% fewer DAAs are required with OAT+HCNSP scale-up to 50% among PWID, whereas more are required with involuntary CAP scale-up. Both targets can only be achieved through treating both current and former PWID (1,710 treatments/year), and impact is reduced with harm reduction interruptions. CONCLUSIONS: Elimination targets are achievable in Tijuana through scale-up of harm reduction and DAA therapy, whereas involuntary CAP and harm reduction interruptions hamper elimination.

Preferences and acceptability of law enforcement initiated referrals for people who inject drugs: a mixed methods analysis.

BACKGROUND: Law enforcement officers (LEOs) come into frequent contact with people who inject drugs (PWID). Through service referrals, LEOs may facilitate PWID engagement in harm reduction, substance use treatment, and other health and supportive services. Little is known about PWID and LEO attitudes and concerns about service referrals, however. The objective of this mixed-methods study was to examine the alignment of service referral preferences and acceptability among PWID and LEOs in Tijuana, Mexico. METHODS: We assessed service referral preferences and perceived likelihood of participation in health and social services, integrating data from structured questionnaires with 280 PWID and 306 LEOs, contextualized by semi-structured interviews and focus groups with 15 PWID and 17 LEOs enrolled in two parallel longitudinal cohorts in Tijuana, Mexico. RESULTS: Among potential service referral options, both PWID (78%) and LEOs (88%) most frequently cited assistance with drug- and alcohol-use disorders. Over half of PWID and LEOs supported including harm reduction services such as syringe service programs, overdose prevention, and HIV testing. The majority of PWID supported LEO referrals to programs that addressed basic structural needs (e.g. personal care [62%], food assistance [61%], housing assistance [58%]). However, the proportion of LEOs (30-45%) who endorsed these service referrals was significantly lower (p <  0.01). Regarding referral acceptability, 71% of PWID reported they would be very likely or somewhat likely to make use of a referral compared to 94% of LEOs reporting that they thought PWID would always or sometimes utilize them. These results were echoed in the qualitative analysis, although practical barriers to referrals emerged, whereby PWID were less optimistic that they would utilize referrals compared to LEOs. CONCLUSIONS: We identified strong support for LEO service referrals among both LEO and PWID respondents, with the highest preference for substance use treatment. LEO referral programs offer opportunities to deflect PWID contact with carceral systems while facilitating access to health and social services. However, appropriate investments and political will are needed to develop an evidence-based (integrated) service infrastructure.

Hepatitis C Reinfection in People Who Inject Drugs in Resource-Limited Countries: A Systematic Review and Analysis.

Hepatitis C (HCV) is a global pandemic. The World Health Organization has developed a strategic plan for HCV elimination that focuses on low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and high-risk populations, including people who inject drugs (PWID). While direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapies are highly effective at eliminating HCV infections and have few side effects, medical professionals and policymakers remain concerned about the risk of reinfection among PWID. This study is a systematic review of research measuring the rate of HCV reinfection among PWID in LMICs and identifies additional areas for further research. A systematic search strategy was used to identify studies documenting HCV reinfection after sustained virologic response in PWID in LMICs. We refined results to include studies where at least 50% of participants had DAA treatment for primary HCV infection. Pooled reinfection rate was calculated across all studies. Seven studies met eligibility criteria. Most studies were conducted in six upper middle-income countries (Mexico, Romania, Russia, Taiwan, Georgi, and Brazil) and one lower middle-income country (Bangladesh) with a total of 7665 participants. No study included information from PWID in low-income countries. Sample sizes ranged from 200 to 3004 individuals, with demographic data missing for most participants. Four studies used deep gene sequencing, and reflex genotyping procedures to differentiate reinfection (infection by a different HCV genotype/subtype) from virologic relapse (infection by the same strain). The follow-up time of people cured from primary chronic HCV infection ranged from 12 weeks to 6.6 years. The pooled reinfection rate of all seven studies was 2.8 (range: 0.02 to 10.5) cases per 100 person-years (PY). In the five studies that differentiated relapse from reinfection, the incidence of reinfection was 1.0 per 100 PY. To date, research on reinfection rates among PWID in LMICs remains limited. Research focused on PWID in low-income countries is particularly needed to inform clinical decision making and evidence-based programs. While rates of reinfection among PWID who complete DAA treatment in upper and lower middle-income countries were similar or lower than rates observed in PWID in high-income countries, the rates were highly variable and factors may influence the accuracy of these measurements. This systematic review identifies several areas for continued research. Policies concerning access to HCV testing and treatment should be comprehensive and not place restrictions on PWID in these settings.

Sex Work as a Mediator Between Female Gender and Incident HIV Infection Among People Who Inject Drugs in Tijuana, Mexico.

We studied mechanisms driving gender differences in HIV incidence among 651 women and men who inject drugs (PWID) in Tijuana, Mexico, hypothesizing that sex work will mediate the association between female gender and HIV incidence. Of 43 HIV seroconversions occurring between 2011 and 2018, 8.8% were among females and 5.2% among males. HIV incidence density was significantly higher among females versus males (1.75 per 100 person years [PY], 95% CI 1.16-2.66, vs. 0.95 per 100 PY, 95% CI 0.62-1.47). Factors significantly associated with HIV seroconversion were: sex work (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] = 2.25, 95% CI 1.05-4.80); methamphetamine injection (aHR = 2.30, 95% CI 1.12-4.73); and methamphetamine and heroin co-injection in the past six months (aHR = 2.26, 95% CI 1.23-4.15). In mediation analyses, sex work mediated a substantial proportion (84.3%) of the association between female gender and HIV incidence. Interventions should target female PWID who engage in sex work to reduce gender-related disparities in HIV incidence.

Global systematic review and ecological analysis of HIV in people who inject drugs: National population sizes and factors associated with HIV prevalence.

BACKGROUND: People who inject drugs (PWID) are at elevated risk of HIV infection. Data on population sizes of PWID living with HIV are needed to inform the implementation of prevention, treatment and care programs. We estimated national population sizes of people who recently (past 12 months) injected drugs living with HIV and evaluated ecological associations with HIV prevalence in PWID. METHODS: We used national data on the prevalence of injecting drug use and of HIV among PWID, derived from systematic reviews, to estimate national population sizes of PWID living with HIV. Uncertainty was estimated using Monte Carlo simulation with 100,000 draws. We extracted data on sample characteristics from studies of HIV prevalence among PWID, and identified national indicators that have been observed or hypothesised to be associated with HIV prevalence in PWID. We used linear regression to evaluate associations between these variables and HIV prevalence in PWID. RESULTS: Four countries comprised 55% of the estimated global population of PWID living with HIV: Russia (572,500; 95% uncertainty interval (UI) 235,500-1,036,500); Brazil (462,000; 95% UI 283,500-674,500); China (316,500; 95% UI 171,500-493,500), and the United States (195,500; 95% UI 80,000-343,000). Greater anti-HCV prevalence and national income inequality were associated with greater HIV prevalence in PWID. CONCLUSION: The countries with the largest populations of PWID living with HIV will need to dramatically scale up prevention, treatment and care interventions to prevent further increases in population size. The association between anti-HCV prevalence and HIV prevalence among PWID corroborates findings that settings with increasing HCV should implement effective interventions to prevent HIV outbreaks. The association between income inequality and HIV among PWID reinforces the need to implement structural interventions alongside targeted individual-level strategies.

"Somebody Is Gonna Be Hurt": Involuntary Drug Treatment in Mexico.

Involuntary drug treatment (IDT) is ineffective in decreasing drug use, yet it is a common practice. In Mexico, there are not enough professional residential drug treatment programs, and both voluntary and involuntary drug treatment is often provided by non-evidence based, non-professional programs. We studied the experiences of people who inject drugs (PWID) in Tijuana who were taken involuntarily to drug centers under the auspices of a federally funded police operation. We provide insight into how the health, wellbeing, human rights, dignity, and security of PWID ought to be at the center of international drug policies included in universal health care systems.

People who inject drugs (PWID) and HIV/aids cases in Mexico City: 1987-2015.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study is to describe the characteristics of individuals who inject drugs, to explore use trends in the past 25 years, and to review the profile of users of various drugs, both legal and illegal, that have been used intravenously without medical prescription in Mexico City. METHODS: Information was drawn from the Drug Information Reporting System (SRID, 1987-2015) and data from the National Center for the Prevention and Control of HIV/aids (CENSIDA, 1983-2018). SRID is based on two 30-day cross-sectional evaluations carried out during June and November. It has served as an uninterrupted epidemiological surveillance system for 32 years, operating both in health and justice institutions in Mexico City and the metropolitan area. The timely identification of changes in use patterns is regarded as the most consistent tool to track the trajectory of the phenomenon. CENSIDA cases were analyzed based on the number of HIV and aids positive injectable drug users during the same period of time in Mexico City. RESULTS: Cocaine users represented the highest number of cases, with a total of N = 293. Back in 2000, the use of this substance showed a significant increase of up to 50%. In turn, heroine and opiates user trends by sex increased from being almost non-existent in 1987 to 13% in 1994. Results provide evidence of the changes in the number of users over the years, with the largest increases being recorded in 1996 (16.5%), 1999 (17%), and 2010 (13%). CONCLUSIONS: The increase observed in the results coincides with domestic and world political situations that have caused an upturn in the use of some substances over the years. It is not far-fetched to think that in the coming years there will be an increase in the number of individuals who inject drugs due to the high production and availability of heroin in Mexico and the emergence of fentanyl use as indicated by ethnographic research in Mexico City and the deaths linked to its consumption. The latest reports, published in 2018, documented at least five cases of fentanyl users.

Impact of funding harm reduction programs for people who inject drugs in Mexico / Impacto del financiamiento de programas de reducción del daño para personas que se inyectan drogas en México

Abstract Introduction Despite evidence from harm reduction programs, there are limited data on their impact in Mexico. The Mexican National HIV Program has supported harm reduction programs implemented by community-based organizations both financially and technically. Objective To obtain an estimate of HIV infections averted from 2015 to 2018. Method A deterministic model was developed to estimate the number of infections, with harm reduction projects financed by CENSIDA and implemented by Community-Based Organizations, using data reported from the period 2015 to 2018. The benefit was obtained by estimating the costs of providing prevention programs and comparing the latter to the costs of providing care. Results An analysis of 66,973 people included in harm reduction programs showed that an estimated 869 HIV infections were averted between 2015 and 2018. Potential savings obtained by providing these harm reduction services exceeded over $600,000 Mexican pesos for every infection averted. Discussion and conclusion Harm reduction services play a key role in reducing the incidence of HIV in Mexico. Ensuring their financing is necessary since, combined with other services, they are a cost-effective tool for reducing the economic and public health burden of HIV/AIDS.

Resumen Introducción A pesar de la evidencia que aportan los programas de reducción de daños, hay pocos datos sobre el impacto que tienen en México. El Programa Nacional de VIH en México ha apoyado técnica y financieramente la implementación de proyectos de reducción de daños operados por la sociedad civil. Objetivo Estimar el número de infecciones de VIH evitadas en el periodo de 2015 a 2018. Método Se desarrolló un modelo determinista para estimar el número de infecciones evitadas con los proyectos de reducción de daños financiados por CENSIDA e implementados por organizaciones de la sociedad civil a partir de los datos reportados durante el periodo 2015-2018. El beneficio se obtuvo al estimar el costo de proveer programas de prevención comparado con el costo de proveer tratamiento. Resultados Del análisis de 66,973 personas contactadas con los programas, se estimaron 869 infecciones de VIH evitadas entre 2015 y 2018. El ahorro potencial de proveer estos servicios de reducción de daños fue de más de $600 mil pesos por infección evitada. Discusión y conclusión Los servicios de reducción de daños cumplen un papel importante en la reducción de la incidencia de VIH en México. Asegurar su financiamiento es necesario ya que es una herramienta costo-efectiva si se le combina con otras estrategias para reducir la carga económica y de salud pública del VIH/sida.

Gender matters? How does gender shape risk environment for syringe sharing among people who inject drugs in northern Mexico. Results from a cross-sectional survey / ¿Importa el género? Evaluando el género como un componente del entorno de riesgo para el uso compartido de jeringas entre personas que se inyectan drogas en el norte de México. Resultados de una encuesta transversal

Abstract Introduction HIV prevalence among people who inject drugs (PWID) is 5%. Studies have found a HIV prevalence around 10% among women who inject drugs (WWID) and 5% among men. Objective To describe characteristics of risk environment that play different roles among men and women who inject drugs in Mexico that could be associated with those differentials. Method In 2012 were interviewed in Hermosillo and Ciudad Juarez in places where population gathered. From them, 824 PWID 74.0% were men and 26.0% were women. Using chi-square test we analyzed associations of gender with demographics characteristics, drug use dynamics, and injecting behaviors. We fitted different generalized linear mixed models with random effects to test the hypothesis that predictors of receptive needle sharing have different effects on men and women. Results Descriptive analysis showed that women live in conditions of higher vulnerability than men in terms of migration, educational attainment, occupation, and income. Women also reported a higher frequency of drug injection, a higher number of drugs used, and a higher prevalence of sharing needles. Variables significantly associated with the likelihood of sharing needles were: having being injected for someone else at first drug injection (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.60, 95% confidence interval CI [1.11, 2.25], p < .05); injecting once a day or more (AOR = 1.80, 95% CI [1.17, 2.70], p < .05), using alcohol or drugs at least half of the time at their sexual encounters (AOR = 1.64, 95% CI [1.16, 2.47], p < .05), experience of syringe confiscation by police (AOR = 1.54, 95% CI [1.13, 2.19], p < .05), and perceiving syringe availability as hard or very hard (AOR = 2.29, 95% CI [1.49, 3.32], p < .01). For women the most significant variable associated with syringe sharing was perception of syringe availability (AOR = 3.15, 95% CI [1.25, 7.91], p < .05), while for men was syringe confiscation by police (AOR = 1.74, 95% CI [1.20, 2.50], p < .05). Discussion and conclusion Results suggests the need to design and implement harm reduction programs that tackle the specific need of WID. Enhancing syringe availability through permanent harm reduction programs, implemented in coordination between public health authorities and community-based organizations, is a basic action to stop HIV spreading among PWID in northern Mexico, along with the decriminalization policies towards these population.

Resumen Introducción La prevalencia del VIH entre personas que se inyectan drogas (PIDs) es del 5%. Los estudios han encontrado que la prevalencia del VIH es aproximadamente del 10% entre las mujeres que se inyectan drogas (MIDs) y del 5% entre los hombres. Objetivo Este artículo busca describir detalladamente diferencias en las características que forman ambientes de riesgo diferenciados al VIH entre hombres y mujeres que se inyectan drogas en México. Método Se entrevistó a 824 personas que se inyectan drogas (PIDs) en Hermosillo y Ciudad Juárez en 2012 en lugares de encuentro de población. El 74.0% fueron hombres y el 26.0% mujeres. Mediante la prueba de chi-cuadrada, se caracterizan perfiles sociodemográficos, dinámicas de uso de drogas y de inyección por sexo. Se ajustan diferentes modelos lineales mixtos generalizados para probar la hipótesis que los predictores del uso compartido de jeringas tienen efectos distintos en hombres y mujeres. Resultados El análisis descriptivo mostró que las mujeres viven en condiciones de mayor vulnerabilidad que los hombres en términos de migración, logros educativos, ocupación e ingresos. Las mujeres también informaron una mayor frecuencia de inyección de drogas, mayor número de drogas usadas y mayor prevalencia de uso compartido de jeringas. Las variables significativamente asociadas con la probabilidad de compartir jeringas fueron haber sido inyectado por alguien más al momento de la primera inyección (Razones de momios ajustadas [AOR] = 1.60, 95% intervalo de confianza IC [1.11, 2.25], p < .05), inyectarse una vez al día o más (AOR = 1.80, 95% IC [1.17, 2.70], p < .05), consumir alcohol o drogas en al menos la mitad de sus encuentros sexuales (AOR = 1.64, 95% IC [1.16, 2.47], p < .05), haber enfrentado confiscación de jeringas por parte de la policía (AOR = 1.54, 95% IC [1.13, 2.19], p < .05) y tener una mala percepción de la disponibilidad de jeringas (AOR = 2.29, 95% IC [1.49, 3.32], p < .01). Entre las mujeres, la variable más significativa asociado a la probabilidad de compartir jeringas fue la mala percepción de la disponibilidad de jeringas nuevas (AOR = 3.15, 95% IC [1.25, 7.91], p < .05), mientras que en los hombres fue la experiencia de acoso policial (AOR = 1.74, 95% IC [1.20, 2.50], p < .05). Discusión y conclusión Los resultados sugieren la necesidad de diseñar e implementar programas de reducción de daños que tomen en cuenta las necesidades específicas de las MIDs. Es urgente mejorar la disponibilidad de jeringas entre PWIDs en el norte de México por medio de programas permanentes de reducción de daños, implementados en coordinación entre las autoridades de salud pública y las organizaciones comunitarias y en conjunto con políticas de descriminalización de esta población.

HCV treatment access among Latinxs who inject drugs: qualitative findings from Boston, Massachusetts, 2016.

BACKGROUND: Compared with Caucasians, Latinxs with the hepatitis C virus (HCV) tend to initiate treatment less often, discontinue treatment, become infected younger, and have higher reinfection rates post-treatment. Little is known about HCV treatment experiences among Latinxs who inject drugs in the Northeastern USA. We assessed knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions tied to HCV, as well as HCV treatment readiness, and explored the overall HCV treatment experience of Latinx people who inject drugs (PWID) in Boston. METHODS: We conducted qualitative interviews with monolingual and bilingual Spanish-speaking Latinx PWID (n = 15) in Boston, Massachusetts, between 2015 and 2016. We used a thematic content analysis approach to code and analyze data to identify knowledge, attitudes, and experiences related to HCV treatment. RESULTS: We identified barriers and facilitators to HCV treatment. Six salient themes emerged from the data. For participants who had not initiated HCV treatment, lack of referral, fear of quitting drugs, and fear of relapse were perceived barriers. Trust in medical providers and a willingness to quit drugs were primary facilitators. Most participants had positive HCV treatment experiences, and several emphasized the need for outreach to Latinxs about the advantages of newer treatment options. Concerns about HCV reinfection were also notable. CONCLUSIONS: We identified a range of experiences tied to HCV treatment among Latinx PWID. HCV care providers play a key role in determining treatment uptake, and more treatment information should be disseminated to Latinx PWID. Healthcare providers should capitalize on treatment facilitators by ensuring referrals to treatment and should continue to address perceived barriers.

Gender differences in the provision of injection initiation assistance: a comparison of three North American settings.

AIM: Individuals experience differential risks in their initiation into drug injecting based on their gender. Data suggest women are more likely to be injected after their initiator and to share injection equipment. Little is known, however, regarding how gender influences the risk that people who inject drugs (PWID) may assist others into injection initiation. We therefore sought to investigate the role of "initiator" gender in the provision of injection initiation assistance across multiple settings. METHODS: We employed data from PReventing Injecting by Modifying Existing Responses (PRIMER), a multi-cohort study investigating factors influencing injection initiation assistance provision. Data were drawn from three cohort studies of PWID in San Diego, USA (STAHR II); Tijuana, Mexico (El Cuete IV); and Vancouver, Canada (VDUS). Site-specific logistic regression models were fit, with lifetime provision of injection initiation assistance as the outcome and gender as the independent variable. RESULTS: Overall, 3.2% (24/746) of the women and 4.6% (63/1367) of the men reported providing injection initiation assistance. In Tijuana, men were more than twice as likely to have provided injection initiation assistance after controlling for potential confounders (adjusted odds ratio = 2.17, 95% confidence interval: 1.22-3.84). Gender was not significantly associated with providing injection initiation assistance in other sites. CONCLUSION: We identified that being male in Tijuana, specifically, was associated with providing injection initiation assistance, which could inform targeted outreach aimed at reducing the influence of PWID populations on non-injectors in this site. This will likely require that existing interventions address gender- and site-specific factors for effectiveness.