Acute Effects of Hallucinogens on Functional Connectivity: Psilocybin and Salvinorin-A.

The extent of changes in functional connectivity (FC) within functional networks as a common feature across hallucinogenic drug classes is under-explored. This work utilized fMRI to assess the dissociative hallucinogens Psilocybin, a classical serotonergic psychedelic, and Salvinorin-A, a kappa-opioid receptor (KOR) agonist, on resting-state FC in nonhuman primates. We highlight overlapping and differing influence of these substances on FC relative to the thalamus, claustrum, prefrontal cortex (PFC), default mode network (DMN), and DMN subcomponents. Analysis was conducted on a within-subject basis. Findings support the cortico-claustro-cortical network model for probing functional effects of hallucinogens regardless of serotonergic potential, with a potential key paradigm centered around the claustrum, PFC, anterior cingulate cortices (ACC), and angular gyrus relationship. Thalamo-cortical networks are implicated but appear dependent on 5-HT2AR activation. Acute desynchronization relative to the DMN for both drugs was also shown. Our findings provide a framework to understand broader mechanisms at which hallucinogens in differing classes may impact subjects regardless of the target receptor.

Three neo-Clerodane Diterpenoids from Tinospora cordifolia Stems and Their Arginase Inhibitory Activities.

Three neo-clerodane diterpenoids, including two new tinocordifoliols A (1) and B (2) and one known tinopanoid R (3), were isolated from the ethyl acetate-soluble fraction of the 70% ethanol extract of Tinospora cordifolia stems. The structures were elucidated by various spectroscopic methods, including one dimensional (1D) and 2D-NMR, high resolution-electrospray ionization (HR-ESI)-MS, and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) data. The T. cordifolia extract and all isolated compounds 1-3 possessed arginase I inhibitory activities. Among them, 3 exhibited moderate competitive inhibition of human arginase I (IC50 = 61.9 µM). Furthermore, docking studies revealed that the presence of a ß-substituted furan in 3 may play a key role in the arginase I inhibitory activities.

Identification of Scutebarbatine B metabolites in rats using UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-MS/MS and exploration of its mechanism of reversal multidrug resistance in breast cancer by network pharmacology and molecular docking studies.

Scutebarbatine B (SBT-B) is a neo-clerodane diterpenic compound isolated from Scutellaria barbata D. Don (S. barbata), which has been reported to exhibit inhibitory P-glycoprotein (P-gp) property in MCF-7/ADR cells. However, its metabolism and molecular mechanism of reversal multidrug resistance (MDR) in breast cancer remains unclear. This study investigated the metabolite profile of SBT-B in rats by UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-MS/MS, and explored its mechanism of reversal MDR through network pharmacology and molecular docking studies. A total of 16 Phase I metabolites and 2 Phase II metabolites were identified, and 18 metabolites were all newly discovered metabolites as novel compounds. The metabolic pathway of SBT-B mainly includes oxidization, reduction, hydrolysis, acetylation and glycination. Meanwhile, network pharmacology analyses showed that SBT-B mainly regulated p27 phosphorylation during cell cycle progression, p53 signaling pathway, influence of Ras and Rho proteins on G1 to S Transition. Molecular docking studies revealed that SBT-B exhibits the potential to inhibit P-gp expression by selectively binding to GLN721 and ALA981 residue sites at the interface of P-gp. In addition, SBT-B exhibits moderate binding affinity with CDK2 and E2F1. This study illustrated the major metabolic pathways of SBT-B in vivo, clarified detailed information on SBT-B metabolites in rats, and uncovered the potential mechanism of SBT-B reversal MDR in breast cancer, providing new insights for the development of P-gp inhibitors.

The influence of cultivation conditions on the formation of psychoactive salvinorin A, salvinorin B, rosmarinic acid and caffeic acid in Coleus scutellarioides.

Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benh. is a popular species in the world, known for its characteristic magnificent colourful leaves. The study has revealed that the contents of rosmarinic acid and caffeic acid are significantly higher in the plant tissues cultivated in vivo than when under in vitro conditions. The performed qualitative and quantitative analyses confirmed the presence (whose averaged content) of salvinorin A (6.65 µg/1 g of fresh plant) and salvinorin B (50.46 µg/1 g of fresh plant) in tissues of Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benh. of 'Electric lime' variety. The greatest quantities of these compounds were recorded for plants cultivated in vitro on the MS medium enriched with NAA (naphthyl-1-acetic acid) at a concentration of 0.5 mg∙ dm-3. The research detected differences in the amounts of compounds between plants grown in vivo and those cultivated in vitro. Addition of plant growth regulators into the breeding medium under in vitro conditions was found affecting the amounts of compounds in plant tissues.

New clerodane diterpenoids from Callicarpa pseudorubella and their antitumor proliferative activity.

Six previously undescribed clerodane diterpenes, cardorubellas A-F (1-6), along with seven known ones (7-13), were isolated from the aerial parts of Callicarpa pseudorubella. Their chemical structures were established by analysis of 1D and 2D NMR, HR-ESI-MS, X-ray diffraction, and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) data. Notably, cardorubella B (2) represented the first examples of naturally occurring succinic anhydride-containing clerodane diterpenes derivatives. The anti-proliferative activities of these compounds were assessed. Remarkably, compound 2 exhibited comparable inhibitory activity against HEL cell lines, surpassing the positive control with an IC50 value of 14.01 ± 0.77 µM, compared to 17.02 ± 4.70 µM for 5-fluorouracil.

Disparate Effects of Two Clerodane Diterpenes of Giant Goldenrod (Solidago gigantea Ait.) on Bacillus spizizenii.

New substances with antimicrobial properties are needed to successfully treat emerging human, animal, or plant pathogens. Seven clerodane diterpenes, previously isolated from giant goldenrod (Solidago gigantea) root, were tested against Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus spizizenii and Rhodococcus fascians by measuring minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC), minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50). Two of them, Sg3a (a dialdehyde) and Sg6 (solidagoic acid B), were proved to be the most effective and were selected for further study. Bacillus spizizenii was incubated with the two diterpenes for shorter (1 h) or longer (5 h) periods and then subjected to genome-wide transcriptional analyses. Only a limited number of common genes (28 genes) were differentially regulated after each treatment, and these were mainly related to the restoration of cell membrane integrity and to membrane-related transports. Changes in gene activity indicated that, among other things, K+ and Na+ homeostasis, pH and membrane electron transport processes may have been affected. Activated export systems can be involved in the removal of harmful molecules from the bacterial cells. Inhibition of bacterial chemotaxis and flagellar assembly, as well as activation of genes for the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, were observed as a general response. Depending on the diterpenes and the duration of the treatments, down-regulation of the protein synthesis-related, oxidative phosphorylation, signal transduction and transcription factor genes was found. In other cases, up-regulation of the genes of oxidation-reduction processes, sporulation and cell wall modification could be detected. Comparison of the effect of diterpenes with the changes induced by different environmental and nutritional conditions revealed several overlapping processes with stress responses. For example, the Sg6 treatment seems to have caused a starvation-like condition. In summary, there were both common and diterpene-specific changes in the transcriptome, and these changes were also dependent on the length of treatments. The results also indicated that Sg6 exerted its effect more slowly than Sg3a, but ultimately its effect was greater.

Structural Revision of Tinotufolins from Tinospora crispa Leaves Guided by Empirical Rules and DFT Calculations.

Clerodane diterpenes are a class of secondary metabolites that can be classified into four types according to the configuration of the H3-19/H-10-H3-17/H3-20 fragment, i.e., trans-cis (TC), trans-trans (TT), cis-cis (CC), and cis-trans (CT). Tinotufolins A-C and E (1a-3a and 5a), isolated from the leaves of Tinospora crispa, were previously elucidated as CT-type clerodanes; however, our established 13C NMR-based empirical rules and density functional theory calculations suggested that these clerodanes belong to the CC type. Therefore, tinotufolins A-F (1-6) were reisolated from the leaves of T. crispa, along with an undescribed compound 7 and known compounds 8-11, and their structures were established by extensive spectroscopic analyses. The structures of tinotufolins A-C and E were revised to CC-type 1-3 and 5, and undescribed compound 7 was established as a CC-type clerodane. The present study demonstrates that empirical rules and calculations can efficiently identify and revise erroneous structures in clerodane diterpenes.

Clerodane diterpenoids with in-vitro anti-neuroinflammatory activity from the tuberous root of Tinospora sagittata (Menispermaceae).

Twenty-six clerodane diterpenoids have been isolated from T. sagittata, a plant species of traditional Chinese medicine Radix Tinosporae, also named as "Jin Guo Lan". Among them, there are eight previously undescribed clerodane diterpenoids (tinotanoids A-H: 1-8), and 18 known diterpenoids (9-26). The absolute configurations of compounds 1, 2, 5, 8, 13, 17 and 20 were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Compound 1 is the first example of rotameric clerodane diterpenoid with a γ-lactone ring which is constructed between C-11 and C-17; meanwhile, compounds 3 and 4 are two pairs of inseparable epimers. Compounds 2, 12 and 17 demonstrated excellent inhibitory activity on NO production against LPS-stimulated BV-2 cells with IC50 values of 9.56 ± 0.69, 9.11 ± 0.53 and 11.12 ± 0.70 µM, respectively. These activities were significantly higher than that of the positive control minocycline (IC50 = 23.57 ± 0.92 µM). Moreover, compounds 2, 12 and 17 dramatically reduced the LPS-induced upregulation of iNOS and COX-2 expression. Compounds 2 and 12 significantly inhibited the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1ß and IL-6 that were increased by LPS stimulation.

Contingent administration of typical and biased kappa opioid agonists reduces cocaine and oxycodone choice in a drug vs. food choice procedure in male rhesus monkeys.

RATIONALE: Combinations of mu and kappa-opioid receptor (KOR) agonists have been proposed as analgesic formulations with reduced abuse potential. The feasibility of this approach has been increased by the development of KOR agonists with biased signaling profiles that produce KOR-typical antinociception with fewer KOR-typical side effects. OBJECTIVE: The present study determined if the biased KOR agonists, nalfurafine and triazole 1.1, could reduce choice for oxycodone in rhesus monkeys as effectively as the typical KOR agonist, salvinorin A. METHODS: Adult male rhesus monkeys (N = 5) responded under a concurrent schedule of food delivery and intravenous cocaine injections (0.018 mg/kg/injection). Once trained, cocaine (0.018 mg/kg/injection) or oxycodone (0.0056 mg/kg/injection) was tested alone or in combination with contingent injections of salvinorin A (0.1-3.2 µg/kg/injection), nalfurafine (0.0032-0.1 µg/kg/injection), triazole 1.1 (3.2-100.0 µg/kg/injection), or vehicle. In each condition, the cocaine or oxycodone dose, as well as the food amount, was held constant across choice components, while the dose of the KOR agonist was increased across choice components. RESULTS: Cocaine and oxycodone were chosen over food on more than 80% of trials when administered alone or contingently with vehicle. When KOR agonists were administered contingently with either cocaine or oxycodone, drug choice decreased in a dose-dependent manner. Salvinorin A and triazole 1.1 decreased drug-reinforcer choice without altering total trials completed (i.e., choice allocation shifted to food), while nalfurafine dose dependently decreased total trials completed. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that salvinorin A and triazole 1.1, but not nalfurafine, selectively reduce cocaine and oxycodone self-administration independent of nonspecific effects on behavior, suggesting that G-protein bias does not appear to be a moderating factor in this outcome. Triazole 1.1 represents an important prototypical compound for developing novel KOR agonists as deterrents for prescription opioid abuse.

Pinuseldarone, a Clerodane-Type Diterpene from Pinus eldarica Needles and Phytochemicals as Novel Agents for Regulating Brown Adipogenesis and Thermogenesis.

Phytochemical investigation of the MeOH extract of Pinus eldarica needles led to the isolation and identification of a new clerodane-type diterpene, pinuseldarone (1), along with a known flavonoid, 5,4'-dihydroxy-3,7,8-trimethoxy-6-C-methylflavone (2), through HPLC purification. The structure of the new compound 1 was elucidated using spectroscopic methods, including 1D and 2D NMR, as well as HRESIMS. Its absolute configuration was established through NOESY analysis and computational methods, including electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations and gauge-including atomic orbital NMR chemical shift calculations, followed by DP4+ probability analysis. The metabolic implications of the isolated compounds were assessed using a cultured brown adipocyte model derived from murine brown adipose tissue. It was observed that treatment with dihydroxy-3,7,8-trimethoxy-6-C-methylflavone (2) downregulates the adipogenic marker C/EBPδ and fatty acid transporter CD36, resulting in a significant reduction in lipid accumulation during brown adipocyte differentiation. However, pinuseldarone (1) treatment did not affect brown adipocyte differentiation. Interestingly, pretreatment with pinuseldarone (1) potentiated the pharmacological stimulation of brown adipocytes, seemingly achieved by sensitizing their response to ß3-adrenoreceptor signaling. Therefore, our findings indicate that phytochemicals derived from P. eldarica needles could potentially serve as valuable compounds for adjusting the metabolic activity of brown adipose tissue, a vital component in maintaining whole-body metabolic homeostasis.

Three New Clerodane Diterpenoids and Their NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation Inhibitory Activity from Callicarpa arborea Roxb.

Three new compounds callicarpenoids A-C (1-3), were isolated from the stems of Callicarpa arborea Roxb together with fifteen known compounds (4-18). The structures of these compounds were elucidated using advanced spectroscopic techniques, including 1D and 2D NMR, UV, IR, HR-ESI-MS, ECD, ORD, and quantum chemical calculations. Compound 3, a rare rearranged diterpenoid with a fused 5/6-ring system demonstrated strong potential as an inhibitor of the NLRP3 inflammasome activation with an IC50 value of 3.153 µM. It effectively reduced GSDMD-NT production, inhibited caspase-1 activation, and suppressed IL-1ß secretion, thereby mitigating NLRP3 inflammasome-induced pyroptosis in J774A.1 cells. These findings suggest that compound 3 warrants further research and development as a promising NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitor.

A New Clerodane from the Leaves of Croton krabas and Its Cholinesterase Inhibitory Activities.

Chromatographic separation of the leaves of Croton krabas resulted in the isolation of one new clerodane, crotoeurin D (1), along with two known compounds, 6S-crotoeurin C (2) and blumenol A (3). Their structures were determined based on extensive nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic data analysis and mass spectrometry. The absolute configuration of the new clerodane was assigned by nuclear overhauser effect spectroscopy correlations and electronic circular dichroism calculations. Compound 1 exhibited significant acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase inhibitory activities. Moreover, the binding modes of 1 revealed that its structure formed strong hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions with the active sites of both enzymes.

Stereochemical assignment of clerodane-type diterpenes from the fruits of Casearia grewiifolia and their ability to inhibit PCSK9 expression.

More than 20 natural products have been reported to modulate PCSK9-mediated cholesterol regulation, and small-molecule-derived proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors continue to be developed and identified. Here, twelve undescribed clerodane-type diterpenes (1-9 and 12-14) and two known compounds were isolated from the chloroform-soluble extract of the dried fruits of Casearia grewiifolia Vent. using a PCSK9 mRNA expression monitoring assay. Among the undescribed compounds, the stereochemistry of two diastereomeric grewiifolins A and B (1 and 2) were extensively elucidated using 2D Nuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy (NOESY) experiments, excitation-sculptured indirect detection experiments (EXSIDE), interproton distance analyses, and computational calculations that included quantum chemical shift calculations combined with DP4+ analysis. All isolates were assessed for their inhibitory activity against PCSK9 and IDOL mRNA expression. Among the compounds tested, compound 3 inhibited PCSK9 and IDOL mRNA expression.

Tinopanoids K-T, clerodane diterpenoids with anti-inflammatory activity from Tinospora crispa.

A total of 17 structurally diverse clerodane diterpenoids, including ten undescribed clerodane diterpenoids (tinopanoids K-T, 1-10) and seven known compounds (11-17), were isolated from the vines and leaves of Tinospora crispa. Compound 3 has not only bear the dominant substituents of γ-hydroxy-α, ß-unsaturated-γ-lactone with anti-inflammatory activity, but also a ternary epoxy structure at C-3/C-4. The planar structures and relative configurations of the clerodane diterpenoids were elucidated by spectroscopic data interpretation. The absolute configurations of compounds 1, 4, 8 and 13 were determined by single-crystal X-ray crystallographic, while that of compound 3 was determined using computed ECD data and single crystal X-ray diffraction of related p-bromobenzoate ester (3a). Subsequently, all compounds were evaluated for their inhibitory effect on nitric oxide (NO) production of LPS-activated BV-2 cells, and compounds 3 and 8 exhibited better NO inhibitory potency, with IC50 values of 5.6 and 13.8 µM than the positive control minocycline (Mino, IC50 = 22.9 µM). The corresponding results of western blot analysis and qRT-PCR revealed that compound 3 can significantly inhibit the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) protein expressions, mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory cytokins of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6) and interleukin 1ß (IL-1ß). The underlying mechanism by which compound 3 exerted anti-neuroinflammatory effects was investigated by western blot and immunofluorescence assay, which suggested compound 3 inhibited LPS induced neuroinflammation via the suppression of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) dependent Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 (Stat3) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways, and the activation of Heme Oxygenase-1 (HO-1) mediated signals.

Clerodane diterpenoids from the Uygur medicine Salvia deserta with immunosuppressive activity.

Six undescribed clerodane diterpenoids along with five known ones were isolated from the aerial parts of Salvia deserta, a traditional Uygur medicine. Their chemical structures including absolute configurations were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analysis (including 1D and 2D NMR, HRESIMS, and IR), combined with calculated ECD method and single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. All the compounds possessed a terminal α,ß-unsaturated-γ-lactone moiety, and were assayed for their immunosuppressive activity via inhibiting the secretion of cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 in macrophages RAW264.7. Among them, (5R,8R,9S,10R)-18-nor-cleroda-2,13-dien-16,15-olide-4-one obviously suppressed the secretion of TNF-α and IL-6 with IC50 values of 8.55 and 13.65 µM, respectively.

Bioactive diterpenoids isolated from the twigs and leaves of Casearia velutina.

Nine previously undescribed clerodane-type diterpenoids (1-9), named caseabalanspenes A-I, along with six know compounds (10-15), were isolated from the twigs and leaves of Casearia velutina. Spectroscopic data (1D and 2D NMR) analysis permitted the definition of their structures and then determination of the molecular formula of the compound by high resolution mass spectrometry (HR-ESI-MS). It is worth noting that compound 7 contains N- heterocycle. Compounds 1-8 were tested the anti-inflammasome activity, and compound 3 exhibited potent activity and decreased LDH level in a dose-dependent manner, with IC50 values of 2.90 µM.

Discovery of neo-Clerodane Diterpenoids from Ajuga campylantha as Neuroprotective Agents against Ferroptosis and Neuroinflammation.

Twelve new neo-clerodane diterpenoids, eight undescribed methoxy/ethoxy acetal analogues, and one new nor-iridane monoterpenoid were isolated from Ajuga campylantha. Their structures were elucidated using a combination of spectroscopic data, quantum chemical calculations, and X-ray crystallography. This research reveals the distinctive structural features of A. campylantha diterpenes, including distinct C rings and 4,18-double bonds, distinguishing them from diterpenes of other plants in the Ajuga genus. Compound 2 represents the first example of a 19(5→6)-abeo-clerodane formed through a Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement. The isolated compounds were assessed for their neuroprotective effects against RSL3-induced ferroptosis in HT22 cells and LPS-induced neuroinflammation in BV-2 cells. Notably, compound 7 inhibits ferroptosis (EC50 = 10 µM) with a potentially new mechanism of action. The preliminary structure-activity relationship studies revealed that the furan-clerodane diterpenoids possess potential ferroptosis inhibitory activity, while the lactone-clerodanes do not. This study represents the first report of furan-containing clerodanes within the Ajuga genus, providing fresh insights into the phytochemistry and pharmacological potential of A. campylantha.

Anti-Inflammatory and Cytotoxic Activities of Clerodane-Type Diterpenes.

The secondary metabolites of clerodane diterpenoids have been found in several plant species from various families and in other organisms. In this review, we included articles on clerodanes and neo-clerodanes with cytotoxic or anti-inflammatory activity from 2015 to February 2023. A search was conducted in the following databases: PubMed, Google Scholar and Science Direct, using the keywords clerodanes or neo-clerodanes with cytotoxicity or anti-inflammatory activity. In this work, we present studies on these diterpenes with anti-inflammatory effects from 18 species belonging to 7 families and those with cytotoxic activity from 25 species belonging to 9 families. These plants are mostly from the Lamiaceae, Salicaceae, Menispermaceae and Euphorbiaceae families. In summary, clerodane diterpenes have activity against different cell cancer lines. Specific antiproliferative mechanisms related to the wide range of clerodanes known today have been described, since many of these compounds have been identified, some of which we barely know their properties. It is very possible that there are even more compounds than those described today, in such a way that makes it an open field to discover. Furthermore, some diterpenes presented in this review have already-known therapeutic targets, and therefore, their potential adverse effects can be predicted in some way.

Structure and anti-inflammatory activity of neo-clerodane diterpenoids from Scutellaria barbata.

Herein, 13 previously undescribed neo-clerodane diterpenoids (1-13) and 27 known analogs (14-40) were isolated from the aerial parts of Scutellaria barbata. Absolute configurations of undescribed compounds were assigned based on single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis and comparison of experimental and circular dichroism. All isolates were evaluated for the inhibition of nitric oxide generation induced by lipopolysaccharide in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Compound 36 was found to be the most active with an IC50 value of 10.6 µM. Structure-activity relations of these neo-clerodane diterpenoids revealed that the α, ß-unsaturated-γ-lactone moiety with an exocyclic conjugated double bond was necessary for maintaining and increasing its activity. Further mechanistic studies show that compound 36 suppressed nitric oxide synthase enzymes (iNOS) expression without affecting iNOS activity. Additionally, compound 36 suppresses NF-κB signaling by inhibiting IκBα phosphorylation.

Laeviganoids A-T, ent-Clerodane-Type Diterpenoids from Croton laevigatus.

Laeviganoids A-T (1-20), 20 new ent-clerodane-type diterpenoids featuring a 2-furanone (1-3) or a furan (4-20) ring, as well as six analogues (21-26), were isolated from the roots of Croton laevigatus. Their structures were determined by spectroscopic data analysis, experimental electronic circular dichroism measurements, and X-ray crystallographic studies. Compounds 4-6, 16, 21-24, and 26 could influence the anti-inflammatory protumoral phenotype of macrophages. Among these compounds, 21 and 26 are the most potent, as evidenced by consistently downregulating the classic anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and upregulating the classic pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α on the secretion level in RAW 264.7 cells.