Nutritional regulation of protease production by the feather-degrading bacterium Chryseobacterium sp. kr6.

The effects of nutritional conditions on growth and protease production by the feather-degrading Chryseobacterium sp. kr6 were investigated. Higher growth was observed on feather-containing or tryptone (TR) medium when compared to casein (CA) or glucose-nitrogen (GN) base medium. Protease production occurred during growth on feather-containing and TR media, whereas no protease activity was detected on CA or GN medium, indicating that protease production is not constitutive, depending on the presence of specific complex nitrogen sources. Supplementation of whole feathers (WF) medium with glucose (WFG) or NH(4)Cl (WFN) did not result in major differences in growth and protease production, whereas soluble protein was lower in supplemented media. Glucose consumption and growth were higher on WFG than on GN medium, suggesting that the absence of a specific complex nitrogen source limited bacterial growth. On WF medium, this strain grew closely attached to the feather structures, initially on the barbules and subsequently on the feather rachis. It was observed, through zymogram analysis, that strain kr6 produced diverse proteolytic enzymes in response to different growth substrates. These results were confirmed by the differential behaviors of crude proteases towards protease inhibitors.

Fossil evidence for evolution of the shape and color of penguin feathers.

Penguin feathers are highly modified in form and function, but there have been no fossils to inform their evolution. A giant penguin with feathers was recovered from the late Eocene (~36 million years ago) of Peru. The fossil reveals that key feathering features, including undifferentiated primary wing feathers and broad body contour feather shafts, evolved early in the penguin lineage. Analyses of fossilized color-imparting melanosomes reveal that their dimensions were similar to those of non-penguin avian taxa and that the feathering may have been predominantly gray and reddish-brown. In contrast, the dark black-brown color of extant penguin feathers is generated by large, ellipsoidal melanosomes previously unknown for birds. The nanostructure of penguin feathers was thus modified after earlier macrostructural modifications of feather shape linked to aquatic flight.

Spina cortica and Tapetum spinosus, two new microstructures of flight feathers: description, function and distribution in modern birds.

The importance of feathers for the avian group has made them one of the most studied epidermal structures both from the morphological and evolutionary point of view. Surprisingly, our observations by Scanning Electron Microscopy detected the presence of two structures widely distributed within different avian groups and not yet described. In this paper we describe these two new structures (Spina cortica and Tapetum spinosus) and map their distribution within modern birds. The S. cortica is a thorn-like microstructure that grows on the barb cortex and the T. spinosus is the assemblage of these thorns. The distribution of these new structures among birds and their morphological diversity could be of great interest to taxonomists and evolutionary biologists interested in the origin of bird flight.

Cytological Aspects of the Differentiation of Barb Cells During the Formation of the Ramus of Feathers / Aspectos Otológicos de la Diferenciación de Células Barba Durante la Formación de las Ramas de las Plumas

The present ultrastructural study on developing and regenerating feathers of chick and zebrafinch describes the ultrastructural changes that occur during the differentiation of barb cells that leads to the formation of the ramus of barbs. Differently from barbule and barb cortical cells that accumulate feather keratin, barb medullary cells undergo to lipid degeneration. Eventually, lipids disappear and medullary cells become empty cavities in the central part of the ramus. In barb medullary cells feather keratin is accumulated in few peripheral bundles that merge with those of cortical cells to fom the wall of the ramus. The latter is joined with branching barbules. The process that controls the transition from keratin-synthesizing to lipid-producing barb cells remains unknown. The accumulation of lipids among keratin bundles confirms the capability of beta-keratin cells to undergo an intense lipidogenesis under specific conditions.

La presente investigación ultra estructural sobre el desarrollo y regeneración de plumas en polluelos y gorrión cebra (Taeniopygia guttata castanotis) describe los cambios ultraestructurales que pueden ocurrir durante la diferenciación de células barbas que lleva a la formación de las ramas de las barbas. Diferente a las barbas pequeñas y a las células barbas corticales que acumulan queratina en las plumas, las células barbas medulares se convierten en cavidades vacías en la parte central de la rama. En células barbas medulares la queratina de la pluma es acumulada en algunos fascículos periféricos que se unen con aquellos de las células corticales para formar la pared de la rama. Este último se une luego a pequeñas barbas en ramas. Aún es desconocido el proceso que controla la transición de la síntesis de queratina a células barbas produciendo lípidos. La acumulación de lípidos entre los acumulos de queratina confirma la capacidad de las células beta-queratina a someterse a una lípido génesis intensa bajo condiciones específicas.