Roadmap for Establishing Large-Scale Genomic Medicine Initiatives in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

In the post-genomic era, genomic medicine interventions as a key component of personalized medicine and tailored-made health care are greatly anticipated following recent scientific and technological advances. Indeed, large-scale sequencing efforts that explore human genomic variation have been initiated in several, mostly developed, countries across the globe, such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and a few others. Here, we highlight the successful implementation of large-scale national genomic initiatives, namely the Genome of Greece (GoGreece) and the DNA do Brasil (DNABr), aiming to emphasize the importance of implementing such initiatives in developing countries. Based on this experience, we also provide a roadmap for replicating these projects in other low-resource settings, thereby bringing genomic medicine in these countries closer to clinical fruition.

Genetics and genomics in Peru: Clinical and research perspective.

Peruvians currently preserve in their DNA the history of 2.5 million years of human evolution and 150,000 years of migration from Africa to Peru or the Americas. The development of Genetics and Genomics in the clinical and academic field is shown in this review.

Los servicios de genética médica en Venezuela / Medical genetics services in Venezuela / Serviços de genética médica na Venezuela

RESUMEN Objetivo. Caracterizar los servicios de genética médica de Venezuela con el fin de conocer la distribución de sus recursos, servicios, tecnologías y formación profesional. Métodos. Se realizó una investigación descriptiva, de tipo documental, entre febrero y noviembre de 2016 de los servicios de genética, mediante la revisión de fuentes documentales primarias y el uso de una ficha de recolección de datos en las instituciones de investigación para información referente a disponibilidad de recursos humanos, servicios de atención y diagnóstico, así como formación profesional, y la base de datos de la Sociedad Venezolana de Genética Humana, que permitió identificar los recursos humanos en centros de genética. El criterio de inclusión fue instituciones con recursos humanos formados en genética. Resultados. Los criterios fueron cumplidos por cuatro instituciones de investigación, siete universidades y cuatro hospitales, todos del sector público. En estas instituciones trabajan 124 profesionales, 56 son médicos y 68 se desempeñan en el área de laboratorio. Sesenta y dos por ciento de los profesionales pertenecen a las instituciones de investigación; estas cuentan con servicios de atención clínico, diagnóstico molecular, bioquímico y, con menos frecuencia, los análisis citogenéticos, prenatales y forenses. Cinco regiones del país tienen entre dos y cuatro médicos genetistas por millón de habitantes. El 96% de los profesionales de laboratorio se localizan en dos regiones (Capital y Zuliana), cinco regiones carecen de ellos. Las instituciones de investigación han formado en genética el 40% de los recursos humanos actuales del país. Conclusiones. Los servicios de genética presentan gran variabilidad de opciones diagnósticas, un acceso limitado y grandes aportes en formación profesional; se requieren políticas coordinadas que los integre y disminuya las brechas.

ABSTRACT Objective. To characterize medical genetics services in Venezuela and describe the distribution of their resources, services, technologies, and professional training. Methods. A descriptive, documentary study of genetic services was conducted between February and November 2016, involving a review of primary documentary sources and the use of a data collection form in research institutions to obtain information on the availability of human resources, clinical care, and diagnostic services, as well as professional training. Furthermore, the Venezuelan Society of Human Genetics database was used to identify the human resources available in genetics centers. The criterion for inclusion was being an institution with staff trained in genetics. Results. The inclusion criterion was met by four research institutions, seven universities, and four hospitals, all in the public sector. A total of 124 professionals work in these institutions; 56 of them are physicians and 68 are laboratory staff. Of these professionals, 62% are affiliated with research institutions, which offer patient care services, molecular and biochemical diagnostic services, and, more rarely, cytogenetic, prenatal, and forensic testing. Five regions of the country have between two and four physicians specializing in genetics per million inhabitants. Of the laboratory professionals, 96% are located in two regions (Capital and Zuliana); five regions have none. Research institutions have provided training in genetics to 40% of the country's current human resources. Conclusions. Genetics services show great variability in terms of diagnostic options. They train large numbers of professionals, but access is limited. There is a need for coordinated policies to integrate these services and reduce existing gaps.

RESUMO Objetivo. Caracterizar os serviços de genética médica da Venezuela com a finalidade de conhecer a distribuição dos recursos, prestação de serviços, tecnologias usadas e formação profissional nesta área. Métodos. Uma pesquisa descritiva documental dos serviços de genética médica foi realizada de fevereiro a novembro de 2016. Foi feita uma revisão das fontes documentais primárias nas instituições de pesquisa com o preenchimento de fichas de coleta de dados com informação sobre a disponibilidade de recursos humanos, prestação de serviços de atendimento e diagnóstico e formação profissional. Foi feita também uma revisão do banco de dados da Sociedade Venezuelana de Genética Humana para identificar os recursos humanos nos centros de genética. O critério de inclusão do estudo foi ser uma instituição com recursos humanos formados em genética. Resultados. Os critérios do estudo foram satisfeitos por 4 instituições de pesquisa, 7 universidades e 4 hospitais, todos da rede pública. Foram identificados 124 profissionais trabalhando nestas instituições: 56 médicos e 68 funcionários da área de laboratório. Sessenta e dois por cento dos profissionais pertencem a instituições de pesquisa que prestam serviços de atendimento clínico e diagnóstico molecular e bioquímico e, menos frequentemente, realizam análises citogenéticas, pré-natais e forenses. Cinco regiões do país têm entre 2 e 4 médicos geneticistas por milhão de habitantes. Além disso, 96% dos profissionais de laboratório estão distribuídos em 2 regiões (capital e Zuliana), sendo que não há nenhum profissional em 5 regiões. As instituições de pesquisa formam atualmente 40% dos recursos humanos em genética do país. Conclusões. Os serviços de genética médica são caracterizados por grande variabilidade nas opções diagnósticas, acesso limitado e grande contribuição para a formação profissional. Fazem-se necessárias políticas coordenadas para integrar e reduzir as lacunas.

The Latin-American network of human genetics.

The Latin-American Network of Human Genetics (RELAGH) is an internet-based federation of human and medical genetic societies of Latin America constituted in 2001. Member societies include the Mexican Association of Human Genetics, the Brazilian Society of Clinical Genetics, the Human Genetics Section of the Argentinean Society of Genetics, the Colombian Society of Human Genetics and the Panamanian Human Genetics Society. RELAGH is a full member of the steering committee of the International Federation of Human Genetics Societies. A core activity of RELAGH is to become a platform for the integration and collaboration of human geneticists across Latin America regarding training, services and research in medical genetics in the region.

Medical genetics in Paraguay.

Paraguay is a developing country with low levels of health coverage, with 81% of the population without health insurance, a proportion that reaches 98.1% among the poor, 93% among the rural population and 91.7% among the mainly Guarani-speaking population. The infant mortality rate is 19.4 per 1,000, although there is gross under-reporting. Maternal mortality rate is alarmingly high at 110.9 per 100,000 livebirths, reaching 420.5 in rural areas. There are only two clinical geneticists and four biochemists trained in human genetics, and virtually all genetic services in the country are concentrated in the 'Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Salud' (IICS) from the National University. The teaching of medical genetics in medical schools is included in physiology and pathology courses, while at the postgraduate level, training in medical genetics is limited to pediatrics and gynecology. In 1999, a pilot newborn screening program was initiated to determine the frequency of congenital hypothyroidism and phenylketonuria and to provide early treatment for affected babies. Another pilot project recently launched by the Ministry of Health is the Program for the Prevention of Neural Tube Defects, mandating folic acid fortification of flour, but as of the end of 2003 it had not been implemented. Paraguay lacks adequate resources to provide accurate diagnoses and treatment of genetic conditions.

Medical genetics in Peru.

Peru has a growing population characterized by notorious socioeconomic differences. The main health problems are acquired diseases related to sanitary conditions that affect mainly the large segment afflicted by poverty and extreme poverty. The state's health policy does not contemplate any action on congenital or genetic conditions, and genetic services are considered a very low priority. In spite of this, some of the best medical schools have undergraduate and graduate programs in genetics, and there is a growing group of specialists that makes its best to impulse the practice of medical genetics in Peru. Many ethical and legal dilemmas, common to other countries in the region, and derived from social inequality, and political, cultural and religious factors, are also faced in everyday practice.

Medical genetics in Zulia, a State of Venezuela.

Zulia is a state located in the northwest of Venezuela. Congenital malformations, deformities and chromosomal anomalies are the second cause of infant and neonatal mortality. There are seven public and private groups providing genetic services, the most important of which, the Medical Genetic Unit at the Zulia University was created in 1973. So far, this unit has provided genetic services to 12,000 families, and has been responsible for undergraduate and postgraduate education in human and medical genetics. Prenatal diagnosis is performed at the Unit and a private practice group, the most frequent referral reason being advanced maternal age. The most frequent genetic diseases in the state are Huntington's disease, sickle cell anemia, neural tube defects and Down's syndrome. Research in genetics includes the clinical, epidemiological and molecular characterization of hereditary diseases, cancer, reproductive problems and genetic diversity. Other public groups are conducting research on dementias, including Alzheimer's disease, and on the genotoxic effects of environmental pollutants.

Community genetic services in Latin America and regional network of medical genetics. Recommendations of a World Health Organization consultation.

The World Health Organization sponsored a Consultation on Community Genetic Services and a Regional Network of Medical Genetics in Latin America in Porto Alegre, Brazil, on June 19, 2003. The main recommendations of the meeting included: (a) the call for government funding of services, research and education in medical genetics; (b) the conduct of epidemiological research on the prevalence and types of birth defects, genetic disorders and genetic predispositions to common diseases; (c) the education of health professionals in genetics; (d) the education of genetic professionals in community health and public health genetics; (e) the fostering of interactions between clinical geneticists, public health personnel, primary health care workers and community organizations, and (f) a better planning of regionalized services to avoid duplication and inefficiency.

Diagnosis of inborn errors of metabolism.

Systematic detection of inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) has usually encountered difficulties in developing countries. We present our experience in a high-risk population in Mexico between 1973 and 1998 with particular reference to the last 10 years, during which time infrastructure and support were considerably improved. Only disorders of intermediary metabolism were sought. The total number of patients studied is not available, but in the last 10 years, patients numbered 5,186. Routine metabolic screening was performed on all patients, with additional tests according to the clinical picture and screening results. The referral criteria have increasingly diversified, one-third being neurological conditions. Of the referrals, 33.8% were from pediatricians (31.1% of whom were at critical medicine departments) and the remainder from specialists. The number of diagnosed patients has increased to 1 per 43.9 patients studied. Amino acid defects have been the most prevalent, the proportion of organic acid and carbohydrate disorders having increased in the last 10 years, associated with improved diagnostic facilities. The most frequently diagnosed diseases were PKU, type 1a glycogen storage, and maple syrup urine disease (MSUD), their frequency apparently varying among different regions of Mexico. Other results of our program include training of specialists and technicians, development of the Latin American Metabolic Information Network, a procedure to locally prepare a special food product low in phenylalanine for the treatment of PKU patients, and extension of approaches for these disorders to the investigation metabolic derangements of infant malnutrition. This work demonstrates that inherited metabolic diseases constitute a significant load in pediatric pathology and that their study can and should be pursued in developing nations.

Estrategia para el desarrollo del consejo genético de Chile / Strategy for the development of genetic services in Chile

En la actualidad hay un reconocimiento creciente de la importancia del consejo genético (CG) en nuestro país. El reducido número de genetistas clínicos existente está, en su mayoría, concentrado en Santiago, otorgando CG fundamentalmente retrospectivo, de alta tecnología, sólo a una fracción de la población que lo requiere. Ante la intención del Ministerio de Salud de crear consultorios de Consejería genética en todos los Servicios de Salud del país, el autor realizó un anteproyecto que utilizando la infraestructura del SNSS, permitiría realizar tanto acciones de CG prospectivas, fundamentalmente a nivel primario, como retrospectivas, a través de reforzar y aumentar los centros de atención secundaria del país y crear centros terciarios de referencia nacional. Se proponen medidas a corto, mediano y largo plazo. Se enfatiza el rol de los genetistas clínicos y centros universitarios en la aplicación de esta estrategia