Targeted isolation of Methanobrevibacter strains from fecal samples expands the cultivated human archaeome.

Archaea are vital components of the human microbiome, yet their study within the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is limited by the scarcity of cultured representatives. Our study presents a method for the targeted enrichment and isolation of methanogenic archaea from human fecal samples. The procedure combines methane breath testing, in silico metabolic modeling, media optimization, FACS, dilution series, and genomic sequencing through Nanopore technology. Additional analyzes include the co-cultured bacteriome, comparative genomics of archaeal genomes, functional comparisons, and structure-based protein function prediction of unknown differential traits. Successful establishment of stable archaeal cultures from 14 out of 16 fecal samples yielded nine previously uncultivated strains, eight of which are absent from a recent archaeome genome catalog. Comparative genomic and functional assessments of Methanobrevibacter smithii and Candidatus Methanobrevibacter intestini strains from individual donors revealed features potentially associated with gastrointestinal diseases. Our work broadens available archaeal representatives for GIT studies, and offers insights into Candidatus Methanobrevibacter intestini genomes' adaptability in critical microbiome contexts.

Archaea influence composition of endoscopically visible ileocolonic biofilms.

The gut microbiota has been implicated as a driver of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Recently we described, mucosal biofilms, signifying alterations in microbiota composition and bile acid (BA) metabolism in IBS and ulcerative colitis (UC). Luminal oxygen concentration is a key factor in the gastrointestinal (GI) ecosystem and might be increased in IBS and UC. Here we analyzed the role of archaea as a marker for hypoxia in mucosal biofilms and GI homeostasis. The effects of archaea on microbiome composition and metabolites were analyzed via amplicon sequencing and untargeted metabolomics in 154 stool samples of IBS-, UC-patients and controls. Mucosal biofilms were collected in a subset of patients and examined for their bacterial, fungal and archaeal composition. Absence of archaea, specifically Methanobrevibacter, correlated with disrupted GI homeostasis including decreased microbial diversity, overgrowth of facultative anaerobes and conjugated secondary BA. IBS-D/-M was associated with absence of archaea. Presence of Methanobrevibacter correlated with Oscillospiraceae and epithelial short chain fatty acid metabolism and decreased levels of Ruminococcus gnavus. Absence of fecal Methanobrevibacter may indicate a less hypoxic GI environment, reduced fatty acid oxidation, overgrowth of facultative anaerobes and disrupted BA deconjugation. Archaea and Ruminococcus gnavus could distinguish distinct subtypes of mucosal biofilms. Further research on the connection between archaea, mucosal biofilms and small intestinal bacterial overgrowth should be performed.

Detection of methanogens in peri-appendicular abscesses: Report of four cases.

The aetiology of appendicular abscess is predominantly microbial with aerobic and anaerobic bacteria from gut flora. In this study, by using specific laboratory tools, we co-detected Methanobrevibacter oralis and Methanobrevibacter smithii among a mixture of enterobacteria including Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus avium in four unrelated cases of postoperative appendiceal abscesses. These unprecedented observations raise a question on the role of methanogens in peri-appendicular abscesses, supporting antibiotics as an alternative therapeutic option for appendicitis, including antibiotics active against methanogens such as metronidazole or fusidic acid.

Reconstruction of ancient microbial genomes from the human gut.

Loss of gut microbial diversity1-6 in industrial populations is associated with chronic diseases7, underscoring the importance of studying our ancestral gut microbiome. However, relatively little is known about the composition of pre-industrial gut microbiomes. Here we performed a large-scale de novo assembly of microbial genomes from palaeofaeces. From eight authenticated human palaeofaeces samples (1,000-2,000 years old) with well-preserved DNA from southwestern USA and Mexico, we reconstructed 498 medium- and high-quality microbial genomes. Among the 181 genomes with the strongest evidence of being ancient and of human gut origin, 39% represent previously undescribed species-level genome bins. Tip dating suggests an approximate diversification timeline for the key human symbiont Methanobrevibacter smithii. In comparison to 789 present-day human gut microbiome samples from eight countries, the palaeofaeces samples are more similar to non-industrialized than industrialized human gut microbiomes. Functional profiling of the palaeofaeces samples reveals a markedly lower abundance of antibiotic-resistance and mucin-degrading genes, as well as enrichment of mobile genetic elements relative to industrial gut microbiomes. This study facilitates the discovery and characterization of previously undescribed gut microorganisms from ancient microbiomes and the investigation of the evolutionary history of the human gut microbiota through genome reconstruction from palaeofaeces.

Heat stress influence the microbiota and organic acids concentration in beef cattle rumen.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of heat stress on meta-taxonomic and metabolic profiles of prokaryotes in beef cattle rumen. Six pure-breed Nellore heifers with ruminal cannulas were used in the study. Six treatments were tested in a 6 × 6 Latin Square with six periods of 21days. The treatments were evaluated in a 2 × 2 + 2 factorial arrangement, consisting of 4 combinations: two temperatures conditions (thermoneutral, TN: 24 °C; and heat stress, HS: 34 °C) and two dietary energy concentration [low-energy (37% non-fibrous carbohydrates - NFC, 12 Mcal of metabolizable energy per kg of dry matter) or high-energy concentration (50.5% NFC, 18.49 Mcal of metabolizable energy per kg of dry matter)] plus two additional treatments with animals maintained in TN conditions but with your intake restricted (TN-RI) to the same of the heifers in HS with the two dietary energy concentration. The meta-genome was sequenced by MiSeq Sequencing System platform, and the DNA sequences were analysed using Geneious 10.2.3 software. The metabolic profile was evaluated by liquid and gas chromatography. Animals under HS presented lower (P = 0.04) prokaryote richness than animals under TN conditions. The genera Flavonifractor (1.4%), Treponema (0.6%) and Ruminococcus (0.9%) showed the lowest (P < 0.04) and Carnobacterium (7.7%) the highest (P = 0.02) relative abundance when the animals were submitted to HS, in relation to animals in TN. A total of 49 different metabolites were identified in the ruminal samples. The concentration of isobutyric acid (4.32 mM) was highest in bovine rumen under HS conditions. Heat stress influenced the microbiota and concentration of some organic acids in beef cattle rumen. There was a reduction in the richness of rumen in cattle under heat stress, but the diversity of prokaryotes was not affected.

Links between the rumen microbiota, methane emissions and feed efficiency of finishing steers offered dietary lipid and nitrate supplementation.

Ruminant methane production is a significant energy loss to the animal and major contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions. However, it also seems necessary for effective rumen function, so studies of anti-methanogenic treatments must also consider implications for feed efficiency. Between-animal variation in feed efficiency represents an alternative approach to reducing overall methane emissions intensity. Here we assess the effects of dietary additives designed to reduce methane emissions on the rumen microbiota, and explore relationships with feed efficiency within dietary treatment groups. Seventy-nine finishing steers were offered one of four diets (a forage/concentrate mixture supplemented with nitrate (NIT), lipid (MDDG) or a combination (COMB) compared to the control (CTL)). Rumen fluid samples were collected at the end of a 56 d feed efficiency measurement period. DNA was extracted, multiplexed 16s rRNA libraries sequenced (Illumina MiSeq) and taxonomic profiles were generated. The effect of dietary treatments and feed efficiency (within treatment groups) was conducted both overall (using non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and diversity indexes) and for individual taxa. Diet affected overall microbial populations but no overall difference in beta-diversity was observed. The relative abundance of Methanobacteriales (Methanobrevibacter and Methanosphaera) increased in MDDG relative to CTL, whilst VadinCA11 (Methanomassiliicoccales) was decreased. Trimethylamine precursors from rapeseed meal (only present in CTL) probably explain the differences in relative abundance of Methanomassiliicoccales. There were no differences in Shannon indexes between nominal low or high feed efficiency groups (expressed as feed conversion ratio or residual feed intake) within treatment groups. Relationships between the relative abundance of individual taxa and feed efficiency measures were observed, but were not consistent across dietary treatments.

Culture of salivary methanogens assisted by chemically produced hydrogen.

Methanogen cultures require hydrogen produced by fermentative bacteria such as Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (biological method). We developed an alternative method for hydrogen production using iron filings and acetic acid with the aim of cultivating methanogens more efficiently and more quickly (chemical method). We developed this new method with a reference strain of Methanobrevibacter oralis, compared the method to the biological reference method with a reference strain of Methanobrevibacter smithii and finally applied the method to 50 saliva samples. Methanogen colonies counted using ImageJ software were identified using epifluorescence optical microscopy, real-time PCR and PCR sequencing. For cultures containing pure strains of M. oralis and M. smithii, colonies appeared three days postinoculation with the chemical method versus nine days with the biological method. The average number of M. smithii colonies was significantly higher with the chemical method than with the biological method. There was no difference in the delay of observation of the first colonies in the saliva samples between the two methods. However, the average number of colonies was significantly higher with the biological method than with the chemical method at six days and nine days postinoculation (Student's test, p = 0.005 and p = 0.04, respectively). The chemical method made it possible to isolate four strains of M. oralis and three strains of M. smithii from the 50 saliva samples. Establishing the chemical method will ease the routine isolation and culture of methanogens.

Culture of Methanogenic Archaea from Human Colostrum and Milk.

Archaeal sequences have been detected in human colostrum and milk, but no studies have determined whether living archaea are present in either of these fluids. Methanogenic archaea are neglected since they are not detected by usual molecular and culture methods. By using improved DNA detection protocols and microbial culture techniques associated with antioxidants previously developed in our center, we investigated the presence of methanogenic archaea using culture and specific Methanobrevibacter smithii and Methanobrevibacter oralis real-time PCR in human colostrum and milk. M. smithii was isolated from 3 colostrum and 5 milk (day 10) samples. M. oralis was isolated from 1 milk sample. For 2 strains, the genome was sequenced, and the rhizome was similar to that of strains previously isolated from the human mouth and gut. M. smithii was detected in the colostrum or milk of 5/13 (38%) and 37/127 (29%) mothers by culture and qPCR, respectively. The different distribution of maternal body mass index according to the detection of M. smithii suggested an association with maternal metabolic phenotype. M. oralis was not detected by molecular methods. Our results suggest that breastfeeding may contribute to the vertical transmission of these microorganisms and may be essential to seed the infant's microbiota with these neglected critical commensals from the first hour of life.

First characterization of methanogens in oral cavity in Malian patients with oral cavity pathologies.

BACKGROUND: The oral cavity of humans is inhabited by several hundreds of bacterial species and other microorganisms such as fungi and archaeal methanogens. Regarding methanogens, data have been obtained from oral cavity samples collected in Europe, America and Asia. There is no study published on the presence of methanogens in the oral cavity in persons living in Africa. The objective of our study was to bring new knowledge on the distribution of oral methanogens in persons living in Mali, Africa. METHODS: A total of 31 patients were included in the study during a 15-day collection period in September. Bacterial investigations consisted in culturing the bacteria in 5% sheep blood-enriched Columbia agar and PolyViteX agar plates. For archaeal research, we used various methods including culture, molecular biology and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). RESULTS: Eight of 31 (26%) oral samples collected in eight patients consulting for stomatology diseases tested positive in polymerase chain-reaction (PCR)-based assays for methanogens including five cases of Methanobrevibacter oralis and one case each of Methanobrevibacter smithii, Methanobrevibacter massiliense and co-infection Methanobrevibacter oralis and Methanobrevibacter massiliense. CONCLUSIONS: In this pilot study, we are reporting here the first characterization of methanogens in the oral cavity in eight patients in Mali. These methanogen species have already been documented in oral specimens collected from individuals in Europe, Asia, North America and Brazil.

Associative effects of wet distiller's grains plus solubles and tannin-rich peanut skin supplementation on in vitro rumen fermentation, greenhouse gas emissions, and microbial changes1.

Two sets of in vitro rumen fermentation experiments were conducted to determine effects of diets that included wet distiller's grains plus solubles (WDGS) and tannin-rich peanut skin (PS) on the in vitro digestibility, greenhouse gas (GHG) and other gas emissions, fermentation rate, and microbial changes. The objectives were to assess associative effects of various levels of PS or WDGS on the in vitro digestibility, GHG and other gas emissions, fermentation rate, and microbial changes in the rumen. All gases were collected using an ANKOM Gas Production system for methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) analyses. Cumulative ruminal gas production was determined using 250 mL ANKOM sampling bottles containing 50 mL of ruminal fluid (pH 5.8), 40 mL of artificial saliva (pH 6.8), and 6 g of mixed diets after a maximum of 24 h of incubation. Fermenters were flushed with CO2 gas and held at 39 °C in a shaking incubator for 24 h. Triplicate quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analyses were conducted to determine microbial diversity. When WDGS was supplied in the diet, in the absence of PS, cumulative CH4 production increased (P < 0.05) with 40% WDGS. In the presence of PS, production of CH4 was reduced but the reduction was less at 40% WDGS. In the presence of PS, ruminal lactate, succinate, and acetate/propionate (A/P) ratio tended to be less with a WDGS interaction (P < 0.01). In the presence of PS and with 40% WDGS, average populations of Bacteroidetes, total methanogens, Methanobrevibacter sp. AbM4, and total protozoa were less. The population of total methanogens (R2 = 0.57; P < 0.01), Firmicutes (R2 = 0.46: P < 0.05), and Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes (F/B) ratio (R2 = 0.46; P < 0.03) were strongly correlated with ruminal CH4 production. Therefore, there was an associative effect of tannin-rich PS and WDGS, which suppressed methanogenesis both directly and indirectly by modifying populations of ruminal methanogens.

Detection of Methanobrevibacter smithii in vaginal samples collected from women diagnosed with bacterial vaginosis.

Vaginosis is a dysbiotic condition of the vaginal cavity that has deleterious effects during pregnancy. The role of methanogens in this disease is unknown since current methods of investigation are not appropriate for the search of methanogens. We prospectively investigated the presence of methanogens in vaginal specimens collected from 33 women thereafter diagnosed with bacterial vaginosis and 92 women thereafter diagnosed without bacterial vaginosis (control group) by direct microscopic examination and fluorescent in situ hybridization, PCR-sequencing, and real-time PCR and isolation and culture. These investigations found only one methanogen, Methanobrevibacter smithii, exclusively in 97% bacterial vaginosis specimens and in two intermediate microbiota specimens. M. smithii was detected microscopically in 2/20 specimens analyzed, by PCR-based observations in 34/125 specimens with 99% sequence similarity with the reference 16S rRNA and mcrA gene sequences and was cultured in 9/40 specimens. These data suggest that the detection of M. smithii could be used as a biomarker for the laboratory diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis.

Isolation and culture of Methanobrevibacter smithii by co-culture with hydrogen-producing bacteria on agar plates.

OBJECTIVES: Methanogenic Archaea are considered as extremely oxygen-sensitive organisms, and their culture is fastidious, requiring specific equipment. We report here conditions allowing the cultivation of Methanobrevibacter smithii in an anaerobic chamber without the addition of hydrogen. METHODS: We first enriched the stool sample in an anaerobic liquid medium. To cultivate M. smithii with Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron and other hydrogen-producing bacteria on solid medium in an anaerobic chamber, we divided the agar plates into two compartments and seeded each strain on each compartment. Methane production was assessed by gas chromatography, and the growing colonies were authenticated by MALDI-TOF MS. RESULTS: We successfully cultured M. smithii from a liquid culture medium inoculated with stool collected from a healthy donor in an anaerobic chamber. The isolation in pure culture permitted successful culture on agar medium by our performing a co-culture with B. thetaiotaomicron. We also successfully tested the co-cultivation of M. smithii with other known hydrogen-producing bacteria. Gas chromatographic tests showed that these strains produced hydrogen in different amounts. Agar colonies of methanogens were obtained by co-culture with these bacteria, and methane production was detected. CONCLUSIONS: We propose a new approach to isolate and cultivate new strains of M. smithii by using a co-culture-based technique that can facilitate and make available the isolation of new methanogenic Archaea strains in clinical microbiology laboratories.

Rumen methanogen and protozoal communities of Tibetan sheep and Gansu Alpine Finewool sheep grazing on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China.

BACKGROUND: Tibetan sheep (TS) and Gansu Alpine Finewool sheep (GS) are both important plateau sheep raised and fed on the harsh Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China. Rumen methanogen and protozoal communities of plateau sheep are affected by their hosts and living environments, and play important roles in ruminant nutrition and greenhouse gas production. However, the characteristics, differences, and associations of these communities remain largely uncharacterized. RESULTS: The rumen methanogen and protozoal communities of plateau sheep were investigated by 16S/18S rRNA gene clone libraries. The predominant methanogen order in both sheep species was Methanobacteriales followed by Methanomassiliicoccales, which is consistent with those seen in global ruminants. However, the most dominant species was Methanobrevibacter millerae rather than Methanobrevibacter gottschalkii seen in most ruminants. Compared with GS and other ruminants, TS have more exclusive operational taxonomic units and a lower proportion (64.5%) of Methanobrevibacter. The protozoa were divided into Entodiniomorphida and Vestibuliferida, including nine genera and 15 species. The proportion of holotrich protozoa was much lower (1.1%) in TS than ordinary sheep. The most predominant genus was Entodinium (70.0%) in TS and Enoploplastron (48.8%) in GS, while the most common species was Entodinium furca monolobum (43.9%) and Enoploplastron triloricatum (45.0%) in TS and GS, respectively; Entodinium longinucleatum (22.8%) was only observed in TS. LIBSHUFF analysis indicated that the methanogen communities of TS were significantly different from those of GS, but no significant differences were found in protozoal communities. CONCLUSION: Plateau sheep have coevolved with unique rumen methanogen and protozoal communities to adapt to harsh plateau environments. Moreover, the host appears to have a greater influence on rumen methanogen communities than on rumen protozoal communities. The observed associations of methanogens and protozoa, together with the findings of previous studies on methane emissions from ruminant livestock, revealed that the lower proportion of Methanobrevibacter and holotrich protozoa may be responsible for the lower methane emission of TS. These findings facilitate our understanding of the rumen microbial ecosystem in plateau sheep, and could help the development of new strategies to manipulate rumen microbes to improve productivity and reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.

Rumen responses to dietary supplementation with cashew nut shell liquid and its cessation in sheep.

Rumen responses to cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) were evaluated in a feeding study. Four wethers were fed a hay and concentrate diet for 4 weeks (pre-CNSL period), and then fed the same diet supplemented with low and high levels of CNSL for 2 weeks each (L-CNSL and H-CNSL periods respectively). The diet was then reverted to the unsupplemented control diet for another 2 weeks (post-CNSL period). Rumen parameters were monitored in each feeding period. CNSL, regardless of the two levels tested, did not show any adverse effects on total short chain fatty acid concentration and dry matter digestibility in the rumen. Propionate proportion increased in the H-CNSL period, while methane production potential, acetate and butyrate proportions, viscosity, foam formation and its stability, and ammonia concentration decreased. Values of these parameters returned to those in the unsupplemented control period after cessation of CNSL supplementation. Clone library analysis of 16S rRNA genes revealed the following shifts in the H-CNSL period. For bacteria, Firmicutes was frequently detected, while Bacteroidetes and Spirochetes were not. For archaea, Methanobrevibacter wolinii was predominant. These results indicate that CNSL could be a methane inhibitor and propionate enhancer by altering the rumen microbial community.

Diversity and population density of methanogens in the large intestine of pigs fed diets of different energy levels.

Marker gene analysis was performed to assess the effect of energy level on the diversity and population density of methanogens in pig fecal material. Crossbred pigs were fed high or low energy level diets, a high-energy (HE) diet that satisfied daily gain at 1.2 kg, and a low-energy (LE) diet with amount of 0.6 times of the HE diet. Growth performance and short-chain fatty acid in feces were examined. Diversity of methanogen was analyzed by the α-subunit of methyl coenzyme-M reductase gene (mcrA) clone library from fecal DNA. The DNA copy numbers of mcrA were quantified by real-time PCR. There was no difference in the concentration and composition of short-chain fatty acid between treatments. Differences in the mcrA clone library were observed between HE and LE treatments (p < 0.05). Ninety-five percent of cloned sequence affiliated genus Methanobrevibacter in the feces of the pig regardless of treatments. During the experimental period, no significant difference in the proportion of copy numbers of mcrA against that of 16S rRNA gene of total bacteria was observed between treatments. In conclusion, feeding energy level affected composition of methanogens in the large intestine of the pig, while population density of methanogen was not affected.

Peri-implantitis-associated methanogens: a preliminary report.

Methanogens have already been described in periodontitis but not in peri-implantitis. Thirty peri-implantitis samples and 28 control samples were collected in 28 consenting peri-implantitis patients. PCR-sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene was used as a broad-spectrum screening method and results were further confirmed by real-time quantitative PCR targeting the mcrA genes. Results showed a methanogen community dominated by Methanobrevibacter oralis in 31/58 (51%) samples including 16/28 (57%) control samples and 15/30 (50%) peri-implantitis samples. Methanobrevibacter massiliense was detected in 5/58 (8.6%) samples including 3/28 (1%) control samples and 2/30 (6.7%) peri-implantitis samples. The prevalence of M. oralis or M. massiliense did not significantly differ in peri-implantitis and control samples (exact Fisher test, P = 0.61 and P = 0.67, respectively). Further ponderation of the methanogen load by the real-time quantitative PCR for actin human gene again indicated non-significant difference (Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test, P = 0.48 and P = 0.40, respectively). These data show that the prevalence of methanogens does not differ in peri-implantitis lesions and healthy sites, when individuals are their own control. These data do not allow assigning a specific pathogenic role to methanogens in peri-implantitis; methanogens rather are part of the commensal and normal flora of the oral cavity.

Tobacco-smoking-related prevalence of methanogens in the oral fluid microbiota.

The oral fluid microbiome comprises an important bacterial diversity, yet the presence of archaea has not been reported so far. In order to quest for the presence of methanogenic archaea (methanogens) in oral fluid, we used a polyphasic approach including PCR-sequencing detection, microscopic observation by fluorescence in-situ hybridization, isolation and culture, molecular identification and genotyping of methanogens in 200 oral fluid specimens. In the presence of negative controls, 64/200 (32%) prospectively analysed oral fluid specimens were PCR-positive for methanogens, all identified as Methanobrevibacter oralis by sequencing. Further, fluorescence in-situ hybridization detected methanogens in 19/48 (39.6%) investigated specimens; with morphology suggesting M. oralis in 10 cases and co-infecting Methanobrevibacter smithii in nine cases. M. oralis was cultured from 46/64 (71.8%) PCR-positive specimens and none of PCR-negative specimens; and one M. smithii isolate was co-cultured with M. oralis in one specimen. Multispacer Sequence Typing found one M. oralis genotype per specimen and a total of five different genotypes with 19/46 (41%) of isolates all belonging to spacer-type four. Statistical analyses showed a significant correlation between the PCR-detection of methanogens in oral fluid and tobacco smoking. These data indicate that M. oralis and M. smithii are oral fluid-borne methanogens in tobacco smokers. Both methanogens could be transmitted during intimate contacts such as mother-to-child contacts and kissing.

Microbiome Responses to an Uncontrolled Short-Term Diet Intervention in the Frame of the Citizen Science Project.

Personalized nutrition is of increasing interest to individuals actively monitoring their health. The relations between the duration of diet intervention and the effects on gut microbiota have yet to be elucidated. Here we examined the associations of short-term dietary changes, long-term dietary habits and lifestyle with gut microbiota. Stool samples from 248 citizen-science volunteers were collected before and after a self-reported 2-week personalized diet intervention, then analyzed using 16S rRNA sequencing. Considerable correlations between long-term dietary habits and gut community structure were detected. A higher intake of vegetables and fruits was associated with increased levels of butyrate-producing Clostridiales and higher community richness. A paired comparison of the metagenomes before and after the 2-week intervention showed that even a brief, uncontrolled intervention produced profound changes in community structure: resulting in decreased levels of Bacteroidaceae, Porphyromonadaceae and Rikenellaceae families and decreased alpha-diversity coupled with an increase of Methanobrevibacter, Bifidobacterium, Clostridium and butyrate-producing Lachnospiraceae- as well as the prevalence of a permatype (a bootstrapping-based variation of enterotype) associated with a higher diversity of diet. The response of microbiota to the intervention was dependent on the initial microbiota state. These findings pave the way for the development of an individualized diet.

Alterations of the human gut Methanobrevibacter smithii as a biomarker for inflammatory bowel diseases.

It is hypothesized that direct and indirect homeostasis between gut microbiota plays a key role in different intestine disorders. Archaea methanogens, an ancient domain of single-celled organism, are major archaea in the digestive system. Recent evidence has shown that the variable prevalence of methanogens in different individuals could have certain effects on inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). We aimed to assess the prevalence of Methanobrevibacter smithii between Iranian patients suffering from IBD and healthy control subjects. Stool DNA extracts from 47 healthy controls and 61 IBD patients were investigated. Quantitative real time PCR was performed for detecting Mbb. smithii load. We found a significantly decreased the Mbb. smithii load between IBD patients and healthy subjects. It is assumed that there is a reverse association between Mbb. smithii bacterial load and susceptibility to IBD, and this association could be extended to IBD patients in remission as we found that Mbb. smithii bacterial load is markedly higher among healthy subjects in comparison to IBD patients.