Efficacy of Pea Protein Supplementation in Combination with a Resistance Training Program on Muscle Performance in a Sedentary Adult Population: A Randomized, Comparator-Controlled, Parallel Clinical Trial.

Animal-sourced whey protein (WPr) is the most popular protein supplement among consumers and has been shown to improve muscle mass and strength. However, due to allergies, dietary restrictions/personal choices, and growing demand, alternative protein sources are warranted. Sedentary adults were randomized to pea protein (PPr) or WPr in combination with a weekly resistance training program for 84 days. Changes in whole-body muscle strength (WBMS) including handgrip, lower body, and upper body strength, body composition, and product perception were assessed. The safety outcomes included adverse events, vital signs, clinical chemistry, and hematology. There were no significant differences in the change in WBMS, muscle mass, or product perception and likability scores between the PPr and WPr groups. The participants supplemented with PPr had a 16.1% improvement in WBMS following 84 days of supplementation (p = 0.01), while those taking WPr had an improvement of 11.1% (p = 0.06). Both study products were safe and well-tolerated in the enrolled population. Eighty-four days of PPr supplementation resulted in improvements in strength and muscle mass comparable to WPr when combined with a resistance training program in a population of healthy sedentary adults. PPr may be considered as a viable alternative to animal-sourced WPr without sacrificing muscular gains and product enjoyment.

Screening of a Microbial Culture Collection: Empowering Selection of Starters for Enhanced Sensory Attributes of Pea-Protein-Based Beverages.

Pea-protein-based ingredients are gaining attention in the food industry due to their nutritional benefits and versatility, but their bitter, astringent, green, and beany off-flavors pose challenges. This study applied fermentation using microbial cultures to enhance the sensory qualities of pea-protein-based beverages. Using UHPLC-TOF-MS analyses along with sensory profile comparisons, microbial species such as Limosilactobacillus fermentum, Lactococcus lactis, Lactobacillus johnsonii, Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus, and Bifidobacterium longum were preselected from an entire culture collection and found to be effective in improving the overall flavor impression by reducing bitter off-notes and enhancing aroma profiles. Notably, L. johnsonii NCC533 and L. fermentum NCC660 exhibited controlled proteolytic activities after 48 h of fermentation, enriching the matrix with taste-active amino acids, nucleotides, and peptides and improving umami and salty flavors while mitigating bitterness. This study has extended traditional volatile analyses, including nonvolatile metabolomic, proteomic, and sensory analyses and offering a detailed view of fermentation-induced biotransformations in pea-protein-based food. The results highlight the importance of combining comprehensive screening approaches and sensoproteomic techniques in developing tastier and more palatable plant-based protein products.

Evaluation of nutritional, technological, oxidative, and sensory properties of low-sodium and phosphate-free mortadellas produced with bamboo fiber, pea protein, and mushroom powder.

This study examined the effects of replacing alkaline phosphate (AP) with bamboo fiber (BF), isolated pea protein (PP), and mushroom powder (MP) on the nutritional, technological, oxidative, and sensory characteristics of low-sodium mortadellas. Results indicated that this reformulation maintained the nutritional quality of the products. Natural substitutes were more effective than AP in reducing water and fat exudation. This led to decreased texture profile analysis (TPA) values such as hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness. The reformulation reduced the L* values and increased the b* values, leading to color modifications rated from noticeable to appreciable according to the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) index. Despite minor changes in oxidative stability indicated by increased values in TBARS (from 0.19 to 0.33 mg MDA/kg), carbonyls (from 2.1 to 4.4 nmol carbonyl/mg protein), and the volatile compound profile, the sensory profile revealed a beneficial increase in salty taste, especially due to the inclusion of MP, which was enhanced by the synergy with BF and PP. In summary, the results confirmed the potential of natural alternatives to replace chemical additives in meat products. Incorporating natural antioxidants into future formulations could address the minor oxidation issues observed and enhance the applicability of this reformulation strategy.

Pea Albumin Extracted from Pea (Pisum sativum L.) Seeds Ameliorates High-Fat-Diet-Induced Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease by Regulating Lipogenesis and Lipolysis Pathways.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is now recognized as the most prevalent liver disease globally. Pea albumin (PA) has demonstrated positive impacts on reducing obesity and improving glucose metabolism. In this research, a mouse model of NAFLD induced by a high-fat diet (HFD) was employed to examine the impact of PA on NAFLD and explore its potential mechanisms. The findings revealed that mice subjected to a HFD developed pronounced fatty liver alterations. The intervention with PA significantly lowered serum TC by 26.81%, TG by 43.55%, and LDL-C by 57.79%. It also elevated HDL-C levels by 1.2 fold and reduced serum ALT by 37.94% and AST by 31.21% in mice fed a HFD. These changes contributed to the reduction in hepatic steatosis and lipid accumulation. Additionally, PA improved insulin resistance and inhibited hepatic oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. Mechanistic studies revealed that PA alleviated lipid accumulation in HFD-induced NAFLD by activating the phosphorylation of AMPKα and ACC, inhibiting the expression of SREBF1 and FASN to reduce hepatic lipogenesis, and increasing the expression of ATGL, PPARα, and PPARγ to promote lipolysis and fatty acid oxidation. These results indicate that PA could serve as a dietary supplement for alleviating NAFLD, offering a theoretical foundation for the rational intake of PA in NAFLD intervention.

Sensoproteomic Characterization of Lactobacillus Johnsonii-Fermented Pea Protein-Based Beverage: A Promising Strategy for Enhancing Umami and Kokumi Sensations while Mitigating Bitterness.

This study investigated the mechanism underlying the flavor improvement observed during fermentation of a pea protein-based beverage using Lactobacillus johnsonii NCC533. A combination of sensomics and sensoproteomics approach revealed that the fermentation process enriched or generated well-known basic taste ingredients, such as amino acids, nucleotides, organic acids, and dipeptides, besides six new taste-active peptide sequences that enhance kokumi and umami notes. The six new umami and kokumi enhancing peptides, with human recognition thresholds ranging from 0.046 to 0.555 mM, are produced through the degradation of Pisum sativum's storage protein. Our findings suggest that compounds derived from fermentation enhance umami and kokumi sensations and reduce bitterness, thus improving the overall flavor perception of pea proteins. In addition, the analysis of intraspecific variations in the proteolytic activity of L. johnsonii and the genome-peptidome correlation analysis performed in this study point at cell-wall-bound proteinases such as PrtP and PrtM as the key genes necessary to initiate the flavor improving proteolytic cascade. This study provides valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the flavor improvement of pea protein during fermentation and identifies potential future research directions. The results highlight the importance of combining fermentation and senso(proteo)mics techniques in developing tastier and more palatable plant-based protein products.

Understanding emulsifier influence on complex coacervation: Essential oils encapsulation perspective.

The objective of this research was to explore the viability of pea protein as a substitute for gelatin in the complex coacervation process, with a specific focus on understanding the impact of incorporating an emulsifier into this process. The study involved the preparation of samples with varying polymer mixing ratios (1:1, 1:2, and 2:1) and emulsifier content. As core substances, black pepper and juniper essential oils were utilized, dissolved beforehand in grape seed oil or soybean oil, to minimize the loss of volatile compounds. In total, 24 distinct samples were created, subjected to freeze-drying to produce powder, and then assessed for their physicochemical properties. Results revealed the significant impact of emulsifier addition on microcapsule parameters. Powders lacking emulsifiers exhibited higher water solubility (57.10%-81.41%) compared to those with emulsifiers (24.64%-40.13%). Moreover, the emulsifier significantly decreased thermal stability (e.g., without emulsifier, Ton = 137.21°C; with emulsifier, Ton = 41.55°C) and adversely impacted encapsulation efficiency (highest efficiency achieved: 67%; with emulsifier: 21%).

Solubility, (micro)structure, and in vitro digestion of pea protein dispersions as affected by high pressure homogenization and environmental conditions.

In this work, dispersions were prepared with commercial pea protein isolate (PPI) and subjected to different (i) high pressure homogenization (HPH) intensities (0 - 200 MPa) (room temperature, pH 7) or (ii) environmental conditions (60 °C, pH 7 or pH 12) to generate dispersions with distinct protein molecular and microstructural characteristics, impacting protein solubility. Besides, protein digestion was analyzed following the static INFOGEST in vitro digestion protocol. Generally, increasing pressure of the homogenization treatment was linked with decreasing particle sizes and enhanced protein digestion. More specifically, the dispersion that did not undergo HPH (0 MPa) as well as the dispersion treated at 60 °C, pH 7, had highly similar microstructures, consisting of large irregular particles (10 - 500 µm) with shell-like structures, and exhibited low solubility (around 15 % and 28 %, respectively), which resulted in limited proteolysis (35 % and 42 %, respectively). In contrast, the dispersion subjected to HPH at 100 MPa and the dispersion treated at 60 °C, pH 12 also had similar microstructures with small and homogeneous particles (<1 µm), and exhibited relatively good solubility (54 % and 31 %, respectively), which led to enhanced protein digestion levels (87 % and 74 %, respectively). This study highlights the potential of food processing on macronutrient (micro)structure and further gastrointestinal stability and functionality.

Enhancing the usability of pea protein in emulsion applications through modification by various approaches: A comparative study.

The extensive utilization in food industry of pea protein is often impeded by its low water solubility, resulting in poor functional properties. Various methods, including pH-shifting (PS), ultrasonication (US), high-pressure micro-fluidization (MF), pH-shifting combined with ultrasonication (PS-US), and pH-shifting with micro-fluidization (PS-MF), were utilized to modify pea protein isolate (PPI) in order to enhance its functionality in emulsion formulation. The physicochemical properties and structural changes of the protein were investigated by assessing solubility, particle size, surface charge, protein profile, surface hydrophobicity, free sulfhydryl groups, and secondary structure content. The extent of modification induced by each treatment method on PPI-stabilized emulsions was compared based on parameters such as adsorbed interfacial protein concentration, particle size, zeta potential, and microstructure of the prepared emulsions. All modification increased the solubility of pea protein in the sequence of PS (4-fold) < MF (7-fold) < US (11-fold) < PS-US (13-fold) < PS-MF (14-fold). For single treatments, proteins dissolved more readily under US, resulting in the most uniform emulsions with small particle. The combined processes of PS-US and PS-MF further improved solubility, decreased emulsions particle size, promoted uniformity of emulsions. PS-US-stabilized emulsions displayed more smaller droplet size, narrower size distribution, and slightly higher stability than those prepared by PS-MF. The relatively higher emulsifying capacity of PPI treated by PS-US than those by PS-MF may be attributed to its higher surface hydrophobicity.

Thermal stability, antioxidant activity and bioavailability of pea protein-naringin Pickering emulsion for enhanced delivery applications.

After successfully addressing to mitigate bitterness of naringin through construction Pickering emulsion using pea protein (PP) and naringin (NG) in our previous study, we now probed thermal stability, antioxidant efficacy, and bioavailability. FTIR analysis and UV-vis spectroscopy indicated predominant interactions between PP and NG were hydrogen and hydrophobic bonds. TGA and DSC analyses demonstrated that PP-NG complexes exhibited superior heat-resistance compared to pure PP and NG. Thermal stability assessments indicated a significant retention of NG in the PP-NG Pickering emulsion than the control NG across varied temperatures (4 °C, 25 °C, 37 °C, and 65 °C). Moreover, the antioxidant activity of PP-NG emulsion was dependent on the concentration of NG, as evidenced by DPPH and ABTS free radicals scavenging abilities, ferric reducing power, and lipid peroxidation resistance. Additionally, PP-NG Pickering emulsion exhibited substantially high bioavailability (92.01 ± 3.91%). These results suggest a promising avenue for the application of NG with improved characteristics.

Effect of limited proteolysis and CaCl2 on the rheology, microstructure and in vitro digestibility of pea protein-carboxymethyl cellulose mixed gel.

Limited proteolysis, CaCl2 and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) have individually demonstrated ability to increase the gel strength of laboratory-extracted plant proteins. However, the syneresis effects of their combination on the gelling capacity of commercial plant protein remains unclear. This was investigated by measuring the rheological property, microstructure and protein-protein interactions of gels formed from Alcalase hydrolyzed or intact pea proteins in the presence of 0.1 % CMC and 0-25 mM CaCl2. Sodium dodecyl-sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) showed the molecular weight of pea protein in the mixture were < 15 kDa after hydrolysis. The hydrolysates showed higher intrinsic fluorescence intensity and lower surface hydrophobicity than the intact proteins. Rheology showed that the storage modulus (G') of hydrolyzed pea protein (PPH)-based gels sightly decreased compared to those of native proteins. 5-15 mM CaCl2 increased the G' for both PP and PPH-based gels and decreased the strain in the creep-recovery test. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed the presence of smaller protein aggregates in the PPH-based gels compared to PP gels and the gel network became denser, and more compact and heterogenous in the presence of 15 and 25 mM CaCl2. The gel dissociation assay revealed that hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds were the dominant forces to maintain the gel structure. In vitro digestion showed that the soluble protein content in PPH-based gels was 10 âˆ¼ 30 % higher compared to those of the PP counterpart. CaCl2 addition reduced protein digestibility with a concentration dependent behavior. The results obtained show contrasting effects of limited proteolysis and CaCl2 on the gelling capacity and digestibility of commercial pea proteins. These findings offer practical guidelines for developing pea protein-based food products with a balanced texture and protein nutrition through formulation and enzymatic pre-treatment.

Encapsulation of Lactobacillus plantarum in W1/O/W2 double emulsions stabilized with the high-intensity ultrasound-treated pea protein and pectin.

This study focuses on developing a water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) double emulsion system using high-intensity ultrasound (HIU)-treated pea protein isolate (HIU-PPI) and pectin to encapsulate Lactobacillus plantarum (L. plantarum). The effects of ultrasound treatment on pea protein isolate (PPI) characteristics such as solubility, particle size, emulsification, surface hydrophobicity, and surface free sulfhydryl group were examined, determining optimal HIU processing conditions was 400 W for 10 min. The developed W1/O/W2 double emulsion system based on HIU-PPI demonstrated effective encapsulation and protection of L. plantarum, especially at the HIU-PPI concentration of 4 %, achieving an encapsulation efficiency of 52.65 %. Incorporating both HIU-PPI and pectin as emulsifiers increased the particle size and significantly enhanced the emulsion's viscosity. The highest bacterial encapsulation efficiency of the emulsion, 59.94 %, was attained at a HIU to pectin concentration ratio of 3:1. These emulsions effectively encapsulate and protect L. plantarum, with the concentration of HIU-PPI being a critical factor in enhancing probiotic survival under simulated gastrointestinal digestion. However, the concurrent utilization of pectin and HIU-PPI as emulsifiers did not provide a notable advantage compared to the exclusive use of HIU-PPI in enhancing probiotic viability during in vitro simulated digestion. This research offers valuable perspectives for the food industry on harnessing environmentally friendly, plant-based proteins as emulsifiers in probiotic delivery systems. It underscores the potential of HIU-modified pea protein and pectin in developing functional food products that promote the health benefits of probiotics.

Identification of volatile and odor-active compounds in pea protein fractions obtained by a modified extraction method using fermentation.

This study investigates the aromatic composition of pea albumin and globulin fractions obtained through either fermentation or conventional acidification using hydrochloric acid (control) toward the isoelectric point of pea globulins. Different lactic acid bacteria were used including S. thermophilus (ST), L. plantarum (LP), and their coculture (STLP). The volatile compounds were extracted by solvent-assisted flavor evaporation technique and quantified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Odor-active compounds (OAC) were further characterized by gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O). In total, 96 volatile and 36 OACs were identified by GC-MS and GC-O, respectively. The results indicated that the protein fractions obtained by conventional acidification were mainly described by green notes for the presence of different volatile compounds such as hexanal. However, the samples obtained by fermentation had a lower content of these volatile compounds. Moreover, protein fractions obtained by coculture fermentation were described by volatile compounds associated with fruity, floral, and lactic notes. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The insights from this study on pea protein aroma could find practical use in the food industry to enhance the sensory qualities of plant-based products. By utilizing fermentation methods and specific lactic acid bacteria combinations, manufacturers may produce pea protein with reduced undesirable green notes, offering consumers food options with improved flavors. This research may contribute to the development of plant-based foods that not only provide nutritional benefits but also meet consumer preferences for a more appealing taste profile.

Understanding Stabilization of Oil-in-Water Emulsions with Pea Protein─Studies of Structure and Properties.

This study investigates the stability and structure of oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by pea protein. Of the wide range of emulsion compositions explored, a region of stability at a minimum of 5% w/v pea protein and 30-50% v/v oil was determined. This pea protein concentration is more than what is needed to form a layer covering the interface. X-ray scattering revealed a thick, dense protein layer at the interface as well as hydrated protein dispersed in the continuous phase. Shear-thinning behavior was observed, and the high viscosity in combination with the thick protein layer at the interface creates a good stability against creaming and coalescence. Emulsions in a pH range from acidic to neutral were studied, and the overall stability was observed to be broadly similar independently of pH. Size measurements revealed polydisperse protein particles. The emulsion droplets are also very polydisperse. Apart from understanding pea protein-stabilized emulsions in particular, insights are gained about protein stabilization in general. Knowledge of the location and the role of the different components in the pea protein material suggests that properties such as viscosity and stability can be tailored for various applications, including food and nutraceutical products.

A biocompatible pea protein isolate-derived bioink for 3D bioprinting and tissue engineering.

Three-dimensional bioprinting is a potent biofabrication technique in tissue engineering but is limited by inadequate bioink availability. Plant-derived proteins are increasingly recognized as highly promising yet underutilized materials for biomedical product development and hold potential for use in bioink formulations. Herein, we report the development of a biocompatible plant protein bioink from pea protein isolate. Through pH shifting, ethanol precipitation, and lyophilization, the pea protein isolate (PPI) transformed from an insoluble to a soluble form. Next, it was modified with glycidyl methacrylate to obtain methacrylate-modified PPI (PPIGMA), which is photocurable and was used as the precursor of bioink. The mechanical and microstructural studies of the hydrogel containing 16% PPIGMA revealed a suitable compress modulus and a porous network with a pore size over 100 µm, which can facilitate nutrient and waste transportation. The PPIGMA bioink exhibited good 3D bioprinting performance in creating complex patterns and good biocompatibility as plenty of viable cells were observed in the printed samples after 3 days of incubation in the cell culture medium. No immunogenicity of the PPIGMA bioink was identified as no inflammation was observed for 4 weeks after implantation in Sprague Dawley rats. Compared with methacrylate-modified gelatin, the PPIGMA bioink significantly enhanced cartilage regeneration in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that it can be used in tissue engineering applications. In summary, the PPIGMA bioink can be potentially used for tissue engineering applications.

Novel organic-inorganic composite pea protein silica food-grade aerogel materials: Fabrication, mechanisms, high oil-holding property and curcumin delivery capacity.

The fragility of the skeleton and poor bioaccessibility limit Silica aerogel's application in the food industry. In this study, composite gels were obtained by cross-linking pea proteins isolate (PPI) with Tetraethoxysilane (TEOS)to improve the bioavailability of silica-derived aerogels. It indicated that TEOS first condensed with H+ to form secondary particles and then complexed with PPI via hydroxyl groups to form a composite aerogel. Meanwhile, the PPI-Si composite aerogel formed a dense mesoporous structure with a specific surface area of 312.5 g/cm3. This resulted in a higher oil holding percentage of 89.67 % for the PPI (10 %)-Si aerogel, which was 34.1 % higher than other studies, leading to a more stable oleogel. Finally, as a delivery system, the composite oleogel not only could significantly increase the bioaccessibility rate by 27.4 % compared with silica aerogel, but also could efficiently inhibit the premature release of curcumin in the simulated gastric fluids, while allowed sustainably release in the simulated intestinal fluids. These results provided a theoretical basis for the application of silica-derived aerogels in food and non-food applications.

In situ interaction of pea peptides and bile salts under in vitro digestion: Potential impact on lipolysis.

The present work evaluated how a native pea protein isolate (PPI) affects the key roles carried out by bile salts (BS) in lipid digestion by means of the in vitro static INFOGEST protocol. Two gastric residence times were evaluated (10 and 60 min), and then the peptides obtained (GPPP) were mixed with BS at physiological concentration in simulated intestinal fluid to understand how they interact with BS both at the bulk and at the interface. Both GPPP give rise to a film with a predominant viscous character that does not constitute a barrier to the penetration of BS, but interact with BS in the bulk duodenal fluid. When the peptides flushing from the stomach after the different gastric residence times undergo duodenal digestion, it was found that for the longer gastric residence time the percentage of soluble fraction in the duodenal phase, that perform synergistically with BS micelles, was twice that of the lower residence time, leading to an increase in the solubilization of oleic acid. These results finally lead to a greater extent of lipolysis of olive oil emulsions. This work demonstrates the usefulness of in vitro models as a starting point to study the influence of gastric residence time of pea protein on its interaction with BS, affecting lipolysis. Pea proteins were shown to be effective emulsifiers that synergistically perform with BS improving the release and bioaccessibility of bioactive lipids as olive oil.

The interplay of muscle and pea proteins in low-salt gels: An insight into in situ structure formation in hybrid meat alternatives.

The present study investigated thermal gelation of mixed sarcoplasmic (Sarc), myofibrillar (Myof), and pea proteins corresponding to partial meat replacements (0, 25, and 50%) by pea protein isolate (PPI) at reducing salt levels (0.6 â†’ 0.1 M NaCl) to understand in situ (simulated) structure-forming properties of hybrid meat analogues. The amount of soluble proteins in hybrids generally increased with salt concentrations and PPI substitution. While muscle proteins (mixed Sarc and Myof) had the strongest gelling capacity, hybrid proteins also exhibited moderate aggregation and gelling activity based on the sol→gel rheological transition and gel hardness testing. Sarc and pea 7S/11S globulins collectively compensated for the attenuated gelling capacity of mixed proteins due to diminishing Myof in the hybrids. Immobilized water within hybrid protein gels was tightly bonded (T2 from nuclear magnetic resonance), consistent with the dense and uniform microstructure observed. These findings offer a new knowledge base for developing reduced-salt hybrid meat analogues.

Hybrid meat batter system: effects of plant proteins (pea, brown rice, faba bean) and concentrations (3-12%) on texture, microstructure, rheology, water binding, and color.

A lean meat batter system was mixed with four plant proteins at 3, 6, 9, and 12% (w/w): pea protein A (PA), pea protein B (PB), brown rice protein (BR) and faba bean protein (FB). Texture profile analysis (TPA) revealed that increasing plant protein levels hardened the hybrid meat batters, with PA and PB leading to the hardest gels. TPA results were supported by micrographs, demonstrating that the two pea proteins formed large aggregates, contributing to a firmer hybrid meat gel. Dynamic rheology showed that the incorporation of plant proteins lowered the storage modulus (G') during the heating stage (20 to 72°C), yet the 6% PA treatment produced a final G' (after cooling) closest to the control (CL). Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) T2 relaxometry also demonstrated that plant proteins reduced the water mobility in hybrid meat batters. Results were in line with the cooking loss, except for a higher cooking loss in the BR formulation compared to the CL. Color measurement showed that increasing plant protein levels led to darker and yellower meat batters; however, the effect on redness varied among treatments. Overall, the findings suggest that pea proteins have superior functionality and compatibility within a lean poultry meat protein system, compared to BR and FB tested here.

Pea protein/carboxymethyl cellulose complexes prepared using a pH cycle strategy as stabilizers of high internal phase emulsions for 3D printing.

The development of food-grade high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) for 3D printing and the replacement of animal fats have attracted considerable attention. In this study, in order to improve the rheological properties and stability of pea protein to prepare HIPE, pea protein/carboxymethyl cellulose (pH-PP/CMC) was prepared and subjected to pH cycle treatment to produce HIPEs. The results showed that pH cycle treatment and CMC significantly reduced the droplet size of HIPEs (from 143.33 to 12.10 µm). At higher CMC concentrations, the interfacial tension of the PP solution decreased from 12.84 to 11.71 mN/m without pH cycle treatment and to 10.79 mN/m with pH cycle treatment. The HIPEs with higher CMC concentrations subjected to pH cycle treatment showed shear thinning behavior and higher viscoelasticity and recovered their solid-like properties after being subjected to 50 % strain, indicating that they could be used for 3D printing. The 3D printing results showed that the pH-PP/CMC HIPE with 0.3 % CMC had the finest structure. Our work provides new insights into developing food-grade HIPEs and facilitating their use in 3D printing inks as nutrient delivery systems and animal fat substitutes.

Exploring the effect of corn starch/pea protein blending on the physicochemical and structural properties of biopolymer films and their aging resistance.

This study investigated the potential effect of blending corn starch and pea protein isolate in various ratios (100:0, 70:30, 50:50, 30:70, and 0:100) on the aging properties of biodegradable films. Unlike previous research, the focus was on the often-overlooked aspect of film aging. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction demonstrated the physical blending of corn starch and pea protein, along with chemical bonding and conformational changes. The optical and microstructural properties showed the formation of smooth, homogeneous films with good compatibility between the polymers. The water resistance, barrier, and mechanical properties corresponding to the intrinsic nature of protein polymers showed a minimized fluctuations in film properties as film ages, with a reduction of at least twice when protein is added. Remarkably, the blend with a ratio of 30:70 demonstrated the most stable properties during aging. These results demonstrated that blending the pea protein isolate was favorable for delaying the retrogradation and recrystallization of corn starch films. Understanding how these blends influence the aging characteristics of films is not only a novel contribution to the scientific community but also holds practical significance, potentially opening a potential for applications in various industries.