Localized apelin-17 analogue-bicelle interactions as a facilitator of membrane-catalyzed receptor recognition and binding.

The apelinergic system encompasses two peptide ligand families, apelin and apela, along with the apelin receptor (AR or APJ), a class A G-protein-coupled receptor. This system has diverse physiological effects, including modulating heart contraction, vasodilation/constriction, glucose regulation, and vascular development, with involvement in a variety of pathological conditions. Apelin peptides have been previously shown to interact with and become structured upon binding to anionic micelles, consistent with a membrane-catalyzed mechanism of ligand-receptor binding. To overcome the challenges of observing nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy signals of a dilute peptide in biological environments, 19F NMR spectroscopy, including diffusion ordered spectroscopy (DOSY) and saturation transfer difference (STD) experiments, was used herein to explore the membrane-interactive behaviour of apelin. NMR-optimized apelin-17 analogues with 4-trifluoromethyl-phenylalanine at various positions were designed and tested for bioactivity through ERK activation in stably-AR transfected HEK 293 T cells. Far-UV circular dichroism (CD) spectropolarimetry and 19F NMR spectroscopy were used to compare the membrane interactions of these analogues with unlabelled apelin-17 in both zwitterionic/neutral and net-negative bicelle conditions. Each analogue binds to bicelles with relatively weak affinity (i.e., in fast exchange on the NMR timescale), with preferential interactions observed at the cationic residue-rich N-terminal and mid-length regions of the peptide leaving the C-terminal end unencumbered for receptor recognition, enabling a membrane-anchored fly-casting mechanism of peptide search for the receptor. In all, this study provides further insight into the membrane-interactive behaviour of an important bioactive peptide, demonstrating interactions and biophysical behaviour that cannot be neglected in therapeutic design.

The association between growth differentiation factor-15, erythroferrone, and iron status in thalassemic patients.

BACKGROUND: Iron overload can result in grave consequences in thalassemic patients, despite the availability of iron chelators. Therefore, alternative pathways aiming to reduce iron toxicity are currently investigated. Among which, reduction of iron absorption through control of hepcidin production appears to be promising. In this study, we investigated growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF15) and erythroferrone (ERFE) as potential suppressors of hepcidin. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted on 61 thalassemic patients and 60 healthy controls. The frequency of GDF15 gene polymorphism (rs4808793) (-3148C/G), serum level of GDF15 and erythroferrone were measured and correlated with those of hepcidin and serum ferritin. RESULTS: The presence of GDF15 gene mutations were significantly higher in the patients' group compared to controls (P value 0.035). Also, thalassemia patients had significantly higher levels of GDF15 and ERFE and lower hepcidin levels than controls (P value < 0.001). Serum hepcidin level showed significantly negative correlations with GDF15, ERFE, reticulocyte count, LDH level, and serum ferritin. Contrarily, it had highly significant positive correlation with hemoglobin. CONCLUSIONS: High level of GDF15 and/or ERFE may inhibit hepcidin production and increase iron load in patients with thalassemia; therefore, medications that suppress their actions may provide new therapeutic potentials for iron toxicity. IMPACT: Iron overload continues to be a major contributor to high morbidity and mortality in patients with thalassemia. New strategies together with proper chelation, need to be developed to minimize the effect of iron toxicity. Growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF15) and erythroferrone (ERFE) inhibit hepcidin production and increase iron levels in conditions with ineffective erythropoiesis. Medications that suppress the production or interfere with the action of GDF15 or ERFE may represent new therapeutic potentials for iron toxicity. Prevention of iron toxicity will significantly reduce morbidity and mortality and improve the quality of life of thalassemia patients.

Characterization of erythroferrone structural domains relevant to its iron-regulatory function.

Iron delivery to the plasma is closely coupled to erythropoiesis, the production of red blood cells, as this process consumes most of the circulating plasma iron. In response to hemorrhage and other erythropoietic stresses, increased erythropoietin stimulates the production of the hormone erythroferrone (ERFE) by erythrocyte precursors (erythroblasts) developing in erythropoietic tissues. ERFE acts on the liver to inhibit bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling and thereby decrease hepcidin production. Decreased circulating hepcidin concentrations then allow the release of iron from stores and increase iron absorption from the diet. Guided by evolutionary analysis and Alphafold2 protein complex modeling, we used targeted ERFE mutations, deletions, and synthetic ERFE segments together with cell-based bioassays and surface plasmon resonance to probe the structural features required for bioactivity and BMP binding. We define the ERFE active domain and multiple structural features that act together to entrap BMP ligands. In particular, the hydrophobic helical segment 81 to 86 and specifically the highly conserved tryptophan W82 in the N-terminal region are essential for ERFE bioactivity and Alphafold2 modeling places W82 between two tryptophans in its ligands BMP2, BMP6, and the BMP2/6 heterodimer, an interaction similar to those that bind BMPs to their cognate receptors. Finally, we identify the cationic region 96-107 and the globular TNFα-like domain 186-354 as structural determinants of ERFE multimerization that increase the avidity of ERFE for BMP ligands. Collectively, our results provide further insight into the ERFE-mediated inhibition of BMP signaling in response to erythropoietic stress.

Urotensin II Receptor Modulation with 1,3,4-Benzotriazepin-2-one Tetrapeptide Mimics.

Urotensin II receptor (UT) modulators that differentiate the effects of the endogenous cyclic peptide ligands urotensin II (UII) and urotensin II-related peptide (URP) offer potential for dissecting their respective biological roles in disease etiology. Selective modulators of hUII and URP activities were obtained using 1,3,4-benzotriazepin-2-one mimics of a purported bioactive γ-turn conformation about the Bip-Lys-Tyr tripeptide sequence of urocontrin ([Bip4]URP). Considering an active ß-turn conformer about the shared Phe-Trp-Lys-Tyr sequence of UII and URP, 8-substituted 1,3,4-benzotriazepin-2-ones were designed to mimic the Phe-Bip-Lys-Tyr tetrapeptide sequence of urocontrin, synthesized, and examined for biological activity. Subtle 5- and 8-position modifications resulted in biased signaling and selective modulation of hUII- or URP-induced vasoconstriction. For example, p-hydroxyphenethyl analogs 17b-d were strong Gα13 and ßarr1 activators devoid of Gαq-mediated signaling. Tertiary amides 15d and 17d negatively modulated hUII-induced vasoconstriction without affecting URP-mediated responses. Benzotriazepinone carboxamides proved to be exceptional tools for elucidating the pharmacological complexity of UT.

A promising therapeutic peptide and preventive/diagnostic biomarker for age-related diseases: The Elabela/Apela/Toddler peptide.

Elabela (ELA), Apela or Toddler peptide is a hormone peptide belonging to the adipokine group and a component of apelinergic system, discovered in 2013-2014. Given its high homology with apelin, the first ligand of APJ receptor, ELA likely mediates similar effects. Increasing evidence shows that ELA has a critical function not only in embryonic development, but also in adulthood, contributing to physiological and pathological conditions, such as the onset of age-related diseases (ARD). However, still little is known about the mechanisms and molecular pathways of ELA, as well as its precise functions in ARD pathophysiology. Here, we report the mechanisms by which ELA/APJ signaling acts in a very complex network of pathways for the maintenance of physiological functions of human tissue and organs, as well as in the onset of some ARD, where it appears to play a central role. Therefore, we describe the possibility to use the ELA/APJ pathway, as novel biomarker (predictive and diagnostic) and target for personalized treatments of ARD. Its potentiality as an optimal peptide candidate for therapeutic ARD treatments is largely described, also detailing potential current limitations.

Exploration of the urocontrin A scaffold yields new urotensinergic system allosteric modulator and competitive antagonists.

The urotensinergic system, involved in the development and/or progression of numerous pathological conditions, is composed of one G protein-coupled receptor (UT) and two endogenous ligands known as urotensin II (UII) and urotensin II-related peptide (URP). These two structurally related hormones, which exert common and divergent effects, are thought to play specific biological roles. In recent years, we have characterized an analog termed urocontrin A (UCA), i.e. [Pep4]URP, which is capable of discriminating the effects of UII from URP. Such an action could allow the delineation of the respective functions of these two endogenous ligands. In an effort to define the molecular determinants involved in this behavior and to improve the pharmacological profile of UCA, we introduced modifications from urantide, considered for some time as a lead compound for the development of UT antagonists, into UCA and assessed the binding, contractile activity and G protein signaling of these newly developed compounds. Our results show that UCA and its derivatives exert probe-dependent effects on UT antagonism, and we have further identified [Pen2, Pep4]URP as a Gq biased ligand with an insurmountable antagonism in our aortic ring contraction assay.

Galanin family peptides: Molecular structure, expression and roles in the neuroendocrine axis and in the spinal cord.

Galanin is a neurohormone as well as a neurotransmitter and plays versatile physiological roles for the neuroendocrine axis, such as regulating food intake, insulin level and somatostatin release. It is expressed in the central nervous system, including hypothalamus, pituitary, and the spinal cord, and colocalises with other neuronal peptides within neurons. Structural analyses reveal that the human galanin precursor is 104 amino acid (aa) residues in length, consisting of a mature galanin peptide (aa 33-62), and galanin message-associated peptide (GMAP; aa 63-104) at the C-terminus. GMAP appears to exhibit distinctive biological effects on anti-fungal activity and the spinal flexor reflex. Galanin-like peptide (GALP) has a similar structure to galanin and acts as a hypothalamic neuropeptide to mediate metabolism and reproduction, food intake, and body weight. Alarin, a differentially spliced variant of GALP, is specifically involved in vasoactive effect in the skin and ganglionic differentiation in neuroblastic tumors. Dysregulation of galanin, GALP and alarin has been implicated in various neuroendocrine conditions such as nociception, Alzheimer's disease, seizures, eating disorders, alcoholism, diabetes, and spinal cord conditions. Further delineation of the common and distinctive effects and mechanisms of various types of galanin family proteins could facilitate the design of therapeutic approaches for neuroendocrine diseases and spinal cord injury.

Effect of Fc-Elabela-21 on renal ischemia/reperfusion injury in mice: Mediation of anti-apoptotic effect via Akt phosphorylation.

INTRODUCTION: Renal ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) is the most common cause of acute kidney injury (AKI), and patients with AKI have a high rate of mortality. Apelin is a therapeutic candidate for treatment of IRI and Elabela (ELA) is a recently discovered hormone that also activates the apelin receptor (APJ). We examined the use of ELA as a preventive treatment for IRI using in vitro and in vivo models. METHODS: Male mice were subjected to renal IRI, with or without administration of a stabilized form of ELA (Fc-ELA-21) for 4 days. Renal tubular lesions were measured using H&E staining, reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured using a dihydroethidium stain assay, and renal cell apoptosis was measured using the TUNEL assay and flow cytometry. Immortalized human proximal tubular epithelial (HK-2) cells were pretreated with or without LY294002 and/or ELA-32, maintained at normoxic or hypoxic conditions, and then returned to normal culture conditions to mimic IRI. Cell apoptosis was determined using the TUNEL assay and cell proliferation was determined using the MTT assay. The levels of Akt, p-Akt, ERK1/2, p- ERK1/2, Bcl-2, Bax, caspase-3 and cleaved caspase-3 were measured using western blotting. RESULTS: Fc-ELA-21 administration reduced renal tissue damage, ROS production, and apoptosis in mice that had renal IRI. ELA-32 reduced HK-2 cell apoptosis and restored the proliferation of cells subjected to IRI. Akt phosphorylation had a role in the anti-apoptotic effect of ELA. CONCLUSION: This study of in vitro and in vivo models of IRI indicated that the preventive and anti-apoptotic effects of ELA were mediated via the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

Lipidated peptides derived from intracellular loops 2 and 3 of the urotensin II receptor act as biased allosteric ligands.

Over the last decade, the urotensinergic system, composed of one G protein-coupled receptor and two endogenous ligands, has garnered significant attention as a promising new target for the treatment of various cardiovascular diseases. Indeed, this system is associated with various biomarkers of cardiovascular dysfunctions and is involved in changes in cardiac contractility, fibrosis, and hypertrophy contributing, like the angiotensinergic system, to the pathogenesis and progression of heart failure. Significant investment has been made toward the development of clinically relevant UT ligands for therapeutic intervention, but with little or no success to date. This system therefore remains to be therapeutically exploited. Pepducins and other lipidated peptides have been used as both mechanistic probes and potential therapeutics; therefore, pepducins derived from the human urotensin II receptor might represent unique tools to generate signaling bias and study hUT signaling networks. Two hUT-derived pepducins, derived from the second and the third intracellular loop of the receptor (hUT-Pep2 and [Trp1, Leu2]hUT-Pep3, respectively), were synthesized and pharmacologically characterized. Our results demonstrated that hUT-Pep2 and [Trp1, Leu2]hUT-Pep3 acted as biased ago-allosteric modulators, triggered ERK1/2 phosphorylation and, to a lesser extent, IP1 production, and stimulated cell proliferation yet were devoid of contractile activity. Interestingly, both hUT-derived pepducins were able to modulate human urotensin II (hUII)- and urotensin II-related peptide (URP)-mediated contraction albeit to different extents. These new derivatives represent unique tools to reveal the intricacies of hUT signaling and also a novel avenue for the design of allosteric ligands selectively targeting hUT signaling potentially.

Synthesis and In Vitro Characterization of Glycopeptide Drug Candidates Related to PACAP1-23.

The search for efficacious treatment of neurodegenerative and progressive neuroinflammatory diseases continues, as current therapies are unable to halt or reverse disease progression. PACAP represents one potential therapeutic that provides neuroprotection effects on neurons, and also modulates inflammatory responses and circulation within the brain. However, PACAP is a relatively long peptide hormone that is not trivial to synthesize. Based on previous observations that the shortened isoform PACAP1-23 is capable of inducing neuroprotection in vitro, we were inspired to synthesize shortened glycopeptide analogues of PACAP1-23. Herein, we report the synthesis and in vitro characterization of glycosylated PACAP1-23 analogues that interact strongly with the PAC1 and VPAC1 receptors, while showing reduced activity at the VPAC2 receptor.

The Role of Peptide Hormones Discovered in the 21st Century in the Regulation of Adipose Tissue Functions.

Peptide hormones play a prominent role in controlling energy homeostasis and metabolism. They have been implicated in controlling appetite, the function of the gastrointestinal and cardiovascular systems, energy expenditure, and reproduction. Furthermore, there is growing evidence indicating that peptide hormones and their receptors contribute to energy homeostasis regulation by interacting with white and brown adipose tissue. In this article, we review and discuss the literature addressing the role of selected peptide hormones discovered in the 21st century (adropin, apelin, elabela, irisin, kisspeptin, MOTS-c, phoenixin, spexin, and neuropeptides B and W) in controlling white and brown adipogenesis. Furthermore, we elaborate how these hormones control adipose tissue functions in vitro and in vivo.

Elabela/toddler: New peptide with a promising future in cancer diagnostic and therapy.

Elabela/toddler is the second endogenous ligand recently identified after Apelin, that binds to the G protein-coupled receptor APJ. Elabela is a 54-amino acid peptide initially identified in fish and human genomes and classified as noncoding. This precursor can be cleaved to shorter sequences (32, 21, and 11 amino acids), which bind and activate APJ, and can be blocked by APJ antagonists. Contrary to Apelin and APJ, widely distributed in organs and tissues, Elabela expression is more restricted, and different studies have revealed the potential role of Elabela in cancers. This review summarizes the current studies focusing on the role of Elabela in different cancers.

Disruption of insect immunity using analogs of the pleiotropic insect peptide hormone Neb-colloostatin: a nanotech approach for pest control II.

This work continues our studies on the pleiotropic activity of the insect peptide Neb-colloostatin in insects. In vivo immunological bioassays demonstrated that hemocytotoxic analogs of Neb-colloostatin injected into Tenebrio molitor significantly reduced the number of hemocytes in the hemolymph and impaired phagocytosis, nodulation and phenoloxidase activities in the insects. Among the analogs tested, [Ala1]-,[Val1]-, [Hyp4]- and [Ach4]-colloostatin were particularly potent in disrupting cellular immunity in larvae, pupae and adult insects. This result suggests that the most effective analogs showed increases in the bioactivity period in the hemolymph of insects when compared to Neb-colloostatin. Recently, we demonstrated that it is possible to introduce Neb-colloostatin through the cuticle of an insect into the hemolymph when the peptide is coupled with nanodiamonds. In this study, we showed that [Ala1]-, [Val1]-, [Hyp4]- and [Ach4]-colloostatin, when complexed with nanodiamonds, may also pass through the cuticle into the hemolymph and induce long-term impairments of immunity in T. molitor at all developmental stages. Studies on the tissue selectivity and effectiveness of Neb-colloostatin analogs and efficient methods for their introduction into insects may contribute to the development of eco-friendly pest control methods based on bioactive peptidomimetics.

On premises and principles for measurement of gastrointestinal peptide hormones.

Gastrointestinal hormones are peptides, and the gastrointestinal tract is the largest endocrine organ in the body for production of peptide hormones. As a premise for accurate measurement of gastrointestinal hormones, the present review provides first an overview over the complex biology of the hormones: The structures and structural homologies; biogenetic aspects; phenotype variabilities; and cellular expression in- and outside the digestive tract. Second, the different methodological principles for measurement are discussed: Bioassay, radioimmunoassay (RIA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), mass-spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and processing-independent analysis (PIA). Third, the variability of secretion patterns for some of the gut hormones is illustrated. Finally, the diagnostic value of gut hormone measurement is discussed. The review concludes that measurement of gastrointestinal peptide hormones is relevant not only for examination of digestive functions and diseases, but also for extra-intestinal functions. Moreover, it concludes that, so far, immunoassay technologies (RIA and ELISA) in modernized forms are still the most feasible for accurate measurements of gastrointestinal hormones in biological fluids. Mass-spectrometry technologies are promising, but still too insensitive and expensive.

Structure-Activity Relationship and Bioactivity of Short Analogues of ELABELA as Agonists of the Apelin Receptor.

ELABELA (ELA) is the second endogenous ligand of the apelin receptor (APJ). Although apelin-13 and ELA both target APJ, there is limited information on structure-activity relationship (SAR) of ELA. In the present work, we identified the shortest bioactive C-terminal fragment ELA23-32, which possesses high affinity for APJ (Ki 4.6 nM) and produces cardiorenal effects in vivo similar to those of ELA. SAR studies on conserved residues (Leu25, His26, Val29, Pro30, Phe31, Pro32) show that ELA and apelin-13 may interact differently with APJ. His26 and Val29 emerge as important for ELA binding. Docking and binding experiments suggest that Phe31 of ELA may bind to a tight groove distinct from that of Phe13 of Ape13, while the Phe13 pocket may be occupied by Pro32 of ELA. Further characterization of signaling profiles on the Gαi1, Gα12, and ß-arrestin2 pathways reveals the importance of aromatic residue at the Phe31 or Pro32 position for receptor activation.

PEGylated and Acylated Elabela Analogues Show Enhanced Receptor Binding, Prolonged Stability, and Remedy of Acute Kidney Injury.

Acute kidney injury (AKI), mostly caused by renal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury and nephrotoxins, is characterized by rapid deterioration in renal-functions without effective drug treatment available. Through activation of a G protein-coupled receptor APJ, a furin-cleaved fragment of Elabela (ELA[22-32], E11), an endogenous APJ ligand, protects against renal I/R injury. However, the poor plasma stability and relatively weak APJ-binding ability of E11 limit its application. To address these issues, we rationally designed and synthesized a set of E11 analogues modified by palmitic acid (Pal) or polyethylene glycol; improved plasma stability and APJ-binding capacity of these analogues were achieved. In cultured renal tubular cells, these analogues protected against hypoxia-reperfusion or cisplatin-caused injury. For renal I/R-injured mice, these analogues showed improved reno-protective effects than E11; notably, Pal-E11 showed therapeutic effects at 24 h post I/R injury. These results present ELA analogues as potential therapeutic options in managing AKI.

Expression characteristics and regulatory mechanism of Apela gene in liver of chicken (Gallus gallus).

Apela, a novel endogenous peptide ligand for the G-protein-coupled apelin receptor, was first discovered and identified in human embryonic stem cells in 2013. Apela has showed some biological functions in promoting angiogenesis and inducing vasodilatation of mammals by binding apelin receptor, but little is known about its expression characteristics and regulatory mechanism in chicken. In the present study, the coding sequences of Apela in chicken was cloned. The evolution history and potential function of Apela were analyzed. Subsequently, the spatiotemporal expression characteristics of chicken Apela were investigated. Furthermore, the regulatory mechanism of Apela mRNA responsing to estrogen was explored by in vitro and in vivo experiments. The results showed that the length of the CDs of Apela mRNA was 165 bp and encoded a protein consisting of 54 amino acids residues with a transmembrane domain in chicken. The Apela was derived from the same ancestor of Apelin, and abundantly expressed in liver, kidney and pancreas tissues. The expression levels of Apela in the liver of hens were significantly higher at the peak-laying stage than that at the pre-laying stage (p ≤ 0.05). The Apela mRNA levels were significantly up-regulated in primary hepatocytes treated with 17ß-estradiol (p ≤ 0.05), and could be effectively inhibited by estrogen receptor antagonists MPP, ICI 182780 and tamoxifen. It indicated that chicken Apela expression was regulated by estrogen via estrogen receptor α (ERα). In individual levels, both the contents of TG, TC and VLDL-c in serum, and the expression of ApoVLDLII and Apela in liver markedly up-regulated by 17ß-estradiol induction at 1mg/kg and 2mg/kg concentrations (p ≤ 0.05). This study lays a foundation for further research on Apela involving in hepatic lipid metabolism.

A Paradigm for Peptide Hormone-GPCR Analyses.

Work from our laboratories over the last 35 years that has focused on Ste2p, a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), and its tridecapeptide ligand α-factor is reviewed. Our work utilized the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a model system for understanding peptide-GPCR interactions. It explored the structure and function of synthetic α-factor analogs and biosynthetic receptor domains, as well as designed mutations of Ste2p. The results and conclusions are described using the nuclear magnetic resonance interrogation of synthetic Ste2p transmembrane domains (TMs), the fluorescence interrogation of agonist and antagonist binding, the biochemical crosslinking of peptide analogs to Ste2p, and the phenotypes of receptor mutants. We identified the ligand-binding domain in Ste2p, the functional assemblies of TMs, unexpected and interesting ligand analogs; gained insights into the bound α-factor structure; and unraveled the function and structures of various Ste2p domains, including the N-terminus, TMs, loops connecting the TMs, and the C-terminus. Our studies showed interactions between specific residues of Ste2p in an active state, but not resting state, and the effect of ligand activation on the dimerization of Ste2p. We show that, using a battery of different biochemical and genetic approaches, deep insight can be gained into the structure and conformational dynamics of GPCR-peptide interactions in the absence of a crystal structure.

An atlas of O-linked glycosylation on peptide hormones reveals diverse biological roles.

Peptide hormones and neuropeptides encompass a large class of bioactive peptides that regulate physiological processes like anxiety, blood glucose, appetite, inflammation and blood pressure. Here, we execute a focused discovery strategy to provide an extensive map of O-glycans on peptide hormones. We find that almost one third of the 279 classified peptide hormones carry O-glycans. Many of the identified O-glycosites are conserved and are predicted to serve roles in proprotein processing, receptor interaction, biodistribution and biostability. We demonstrate that O-glycans positioned within the receptor binding motifs of members of the neuropeptide Y and glucagon families modulate receptor activation properties and substantially extend peptide half-lives. Our study highlights the importance of O-glycosylation in the biology of peptide hormones, and our map of O-glycosites in this large class of biomolecules serves as a discovery platform for an important class of molecules with potential opportunities for drug designs.

Development and in vitro characterization of polymeric nanoparticles containing recombinant adrenomedullin-2 intended for therapeutic angiogenesis.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the leading cause of death worldwide. Growth factor therapy has emerged as novel therapeutic strategy under investigation for CVD. In this sense, adrenomedullin-2 (ADM-2) has been recently identified as a new angiogenic factor able to regulate the regional blood flow and cardiovascular function. However, the therapeutic value of ADM-2 is limited by its short biological half-life and low plasma stability. Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) micro- and nanoparticles have been investigated as growth factor delivery systems for cardiac repair. In this study, we aimed to develop PLGA nanoparticles containing ADM-2 intended for therapeutic angiogenesis. PLGA nanoparticles containing ADM-2 were prepared by a double emulsion modified method, resulting in 300 nm-sized stable particles with zeta potential around - 30 mV. Electron microscopy analysis by SEM and TEM revealed spherical particles with a smooth surface. High encapsulation efficiency was reached (ca.70%), as quantified by ELISA. ADM-2 associated to polymer nanoparticles was also determined by EDS elemental composition analysis, SDS-PAGE and LC-MS/MS for peptide identification. In vitro release assays showed the sustained release of ADM-2 from polymer nanoparticles for 21 days. Cell viability experiments were performed in J774 macrophages and H9c2 cardiomyocyte cells, about which PLGA nanoparticles loaded with ADM-2 did not cause toxicity in the range 0.01-1 mg/ml. Of note, encapsulated ADM-2 significantly induced cell proliferation in EA.hy926 endothelial cells, indicating the ADM-2 bioactivity was preserved after the encapsulation process. Collectively, these results demonstrate the feasibility of using PLGA nanoparticles as delivery systems for the angiogenic peptide ADM-2, which could represent a novel approach for therapeutic angiogenesis in CVD using growth factor therapy.