[Molecular basis of cancer]. / Bases moleculares del cáncer.

Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by an autonomous proliferation of neoplastic cells which have a number of alterations, including mutations and genetic instability. Cellular functions are controlled by proteins, and because these proteins are encoded by DNA organized into genes, molecular studies have shown that cancer is a paradigm of acquired genetic disease. The process of protein production involves a cascade of several different steps, each with its attendant enzymes, which are also encoded by DNA and regulated by other proteins. Most steps in the process can be affected, eventually leading to an alteration in the amount or structure of proteins, which in turn affects cellular function. However, whereas cellular function may be altered by disturbance of one gene, malignant transformation is thought to require two or more abnormalities occurring in the same cell. Although there are mechanisms responsible for DNA maintenance and repair, the basic structure of DNA and the order of the nucleotide bases can be mutated. These mutations can be inherited or can occur sporadically, and can be present in all cells or only in the tumor cells. At the nucleotide level, these mutations can be substitutions, additions or deletions. Several of the oncogenes discussed below, including the p53, c-fms, and Ras genes, can be activated by point mutations that lead to aminoacid substitution in critical portions of the protein. This article examines the current concepts relating to cellular mechanism that underlie the molecular alterations that characterize the development of cancer.

Wnt signaling: a complex issue.

The development of tissues and organs in multicellular organisms is controlled by the interplay of several signaling pathways that cross-talk to provide positional information and induce cell fate specification. Together with other families of secreted factors such as TGF beta s, FGFs, Hedgehog and Notch proteins, Wnt growth factors are crucially implicated in these processes. Here, we will first discuss molecular mechanisms and then consider some biological consequences of Wnt signaling.

The influence of growth factors on the development of preimplantation mammalian embryos.

The development of the preimplantation mammalian embryo from a fertilized egg to a blastocyst capable of implanting in the uterus is a complex process. Cell division must be carefully programmed. The embryonic genome must be activated at the appropriate stage of development, and the pattern of gene expression must be carefully coordinated for the initiation of the correct program of differentiation. Cell fates must be chosen to establish specific cell types such as the inner cell mass and the trophectoderm, which give rise to the embryo proper and the placenta, respectively. This review summarizes recent findings concerning the influence of growth factors on the development of preimplantation mammalian embryos. Maternal factors secreted into the lumen of the female reproductive tract as well as substances synthesized by the developing embryo itself help to regulate this process. Studies of embryos in culture and investigations using homologous recombination to create embryos and animals null for specific genes have enabled the identification of several growth factors that appear essential for preimplantation mammalian embryo development. Some of the factors are required maternal factors; others are embryo-derived autocrine and paracrine factors. Studies using molecular biology are beginning to identify differences in the patterns of genes expressed by naturally derived embryos and those developing in culture. The knowledge gained from studies on growth factors, media, embryonic development, and gene expression should help improve culture conditions for embryos and will provide for safer outcomes from assisted reproductive procedures in human and animal clinics.

Integrins in vascular development.

Many growth factors and their protein kinase receptors play a role in regulating vascular development. In addition, cell adhesion molecules, such as integrins and their ligands in the extracellular matrix, play important roles in the adhesion, migration, proliferation, survival and differentiation of the cells that form the vasculature. Some integrins are known to be regulated by angiogenic growth factors and studies with inhibitors of integrin functions and using strains of mice lacking specific integrins clearly implicate some of these molecules in vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. However, the data are incomplete and sometimes discordant and it is unclear how angiogenic growth factors and integrin-mediated adhesive events cooperate in the diverse cell biological processes involved in forming the vasculature. Consideration of the results suggests working hypotheses and raises questions for future research directions.

Vascular endothelial growth factor, a multifunctional polypeptide.

Angiogenesis, the sprouting of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels, is a complex, multicellular phenomenon involving capillary endothelial cell (EC) proliferation, migration, and tissue infiltration. The elucidation of the biochemical and molecular factors which control angiogenesis is fundamental to our understanding of normal blood vessel development, as well as of the pathogenesis of abnormal blood vessel formation. Angiogenesis is associated with numerous physiological processes, including embryogenesis, wound healing, organ regeneration, and the female reproductive cycle. However, abnormal angiogenesis also plays a major role in the pathogenesis of tumor growth, rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis and various retinopathies. The cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying both physiological and pathophysiological angiogenesis are only now beginning to be understood. Vascular endothelial growth factor was initially discovered as an unidentified tumor-derived factor which increased microvascular permeability (vascular permeability factor, VPF). Subsequently, it was determined that the protein exhibited mitogenic effects on endothelial cells, but not other cell types. Multiple receptor subtypes have been described which may in part explain the multiplicity of biological actions that have been ascribed to VEGF/VPF in the literature. In this overview, we briefly summarize what is currently known about VEGF and VEGF receptor biology, as well as VEGF receptor signal transduction mechanisms in endothelial cells.

Vascular endothelial growth factor, a multifunctional polypeptide

Angiogenesis, the sprouting of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels, is a complex, multicellular phenomenon involving capillary endothelial cell (EC) proliferation, migration, and tissue infiltration. The elucidation of the biochemical and molecular factors which control angiogenesis is fundamental to our understanding of normal blood vessel development, as well as of the pathogenesis of abnormal blood vessel formation. Angiogenesis is associated with numerous physiological processes, including embryogenesis, wound healing, organ regeneration, and the female reproductive cycle. However, abnormal angiogenesis also plays a major role in the pathogenesis of tumor growth, rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis and various retinopathies. The cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying both physiological and pathophysiological angiogenesis are only now beginning to be understood. Vascular endothelial growth factor was initially discovered as an unidentified tumor-derived factor which increased microvascular permeability (vascular permeability factor, VPF). Subsequently, it was determined that the protein exhibited mitogenic effects on endothelial cells, but not other cell types. Multiple receptor subtypes have been described which may in part explain the multiplicity of biological actions that have been ascribed to VEGF/VPF in the literature. In this overview, we briefly summarize what is currently known about VEGF and VEGF receptor biology, as well as VEGF receptor signal transduction mechanisms in endothelial cells

Role of receptors for epidermal growth factor and insulin-like growth factors I and II in the differentiation of rat mammary glands from lactogenesis I to lactogenesis II.

In addition to ovarian steroids and lactogenic hormones from the placenta and pituitary, growth factors control the growth and differentiation of mammary glands. Lactogenesis II at the end of pregnancy is under the control of progesterone. Ovariectomy results in a significant decrease in the number of receptors for epidermal growth factor (EGF) and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and an increase in IGF-II binding sites in mammary gland acini of rats, without affecting the affinity for their respective ligand. Although concentrations of EGF, IGF-I and IGF-II receptors are regulated by oestradiol and progesterone, replacement treatment with ovarian steroids after ovariectomy showed that receptor concentrations do not mediate the restraint on lactogenesis. Progesterone treatment, which inhibits the onset of lactogenesis II, did not restore EGF receptor concentrations to control values, and the presence of oestradiol was required to reverse the effect of ovariectomy. Oestradiol, which potentiates the effect of ovariectomy on milk synthesis, increases IGF-I receptor concentrations. IGF-II receptor concentrations, after the different steroid treatments, were consistent with the steroid effect on milk synthesis. The changes observed in the concentrations of these growth factor receptors at the onset of mammary gland secretion are not considered to affect the progesterone block to lactogenesis II, but rather are a consequence of the shift of the hormonal and, hence, physiological status of the gland.

Matrix in signal transduction and growth factor modulation.

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is indispensable for the survival of multicellular organisms. It provides the adherent cells with crucial clues for migration, proliferation and differentiation. These clues are transmitted to the interior of the cell by ECM receptors like the integrins. Signaling by the ECM occurs by induction of assembly and disassembly of cytoskeletal structures or by modulation of classical signal transduction pathways such as activation of phosphatidylinositol-proteases, growth factors and cytokines that are specifically bound to its constituents and thereby stored, localized and modulated in terms of their biological activities. Finally, both the quantity and the quality of growth factor signaling appear to be dependent on the temporal and spatial activation of ECM receptors, supporting the requirement of a crosstalk between matrix and growth factor receptors.

The tails of two proteins: the scrapie prion protein and the ciliary neurotrophic factor receptor.

Many proteins with a variety of functions have proven to have glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-linkages; two members of this family are the scrapie prion protein and the receptor for ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF). The scrapie prion protein has two isoforms: PrPC is found in brain cells from normal animals, while PrPSc is an abnormal isoform that is only found in scrapie-infected animals. PrPSc is the only identified component of the prion, an infectious agent that apparently does not contain nucleic acid. Models for how prions replicate require that PrPSc must somehow recruit PrPC and catalyze or stabilize a post-translational event that converts PrPC into PrPSc. Extensive characterization has suggested that this critical post-translational event is probably conformational and not a chemical change. The presence of a GPI anchor on CNTFR alpha is an unusual feature for a molecule that must transmit a signal to the inside of the cell. Recent data have indicated that CNTFR alpha must bind CNTF, then interact with two other "beta" receptor components to initiate signal transduction. Furthermore, we have shown that, unlike the vast majority of receptors, CNTFR alpha can function as a soluble molecule to promote CNTF action on cells that contain the two beta components, but do not themselves express CNTFR alpha. Intriguingly, we have also demonstrated that CNTFR alpha is present in cerebrospinal fluid and blood in vivo, and the release of CNTFR alpha from skeletal muscle is increased by denervation of the muscle. Whether the soluble form is released through GPI-anchor cleavage remains to be determined.