Introduction of the smallpox vaccine in Napoleonic France, as recorded in contemporary medals.

The smallpox vaccine developed by Jenner in 1798 was successfully introduced in France in 1800 with the support of Napoleon Bonaparte. The medals and tokens (coin-like medals) issued to encourage early-day vaccination activities are described in the context of the changing political situation in that country. In 1800 a private society of subscribers, led by the Duke of La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt was created, along with a Vaccine Committee charged with evaluating the safety and efficacy of vaccination before deciding if vaccination should be extended to the entire population. The Vaccine Committee published a positive report in 1803, and in 1804, the Ministry of the Interior established the "Society for the extinction of smallpox in France by means of the propagation of the vaccine". The creation of the Society made smallpox vaccination an official activity of the empire, facilitating collaboration between government agencies. The vaccine institution, established by Napoleon in 1804, continued its functions until 1820 when the Royal Academy of Medicine was created and took over those functions. This case exemplifies the collaboration that was needed between science and politics to rapidly bring the recently developed smallpox vaccine to the needed population.

[La expedición Balmis en el Suplemento a la Gazeta de Madrid (14 de octubre de 1806), difusión hispana.] / The Balmis expedition in the Supplement to the Gazeta de Madrid (October 14, 1806), Hispanic diffusion.

The Madrid Gazette published a Supplement on October 14, 1806, regarding the arrival of the Director of the Royal Expedition Vaccine Philanthropy, Francisco Xavier Balmis, and the reception held by King Carlos IV. Balmis had completed his journey across the Spanish overseas territories, taking the vaccine against smallpox from arm to arm with the help of a human chain of children. During this journey, Balmis also established Vaccination Boards and endeavoured to identify cows with cowpox. The publication endorsed the policies of a declining Bourbon monarchy and marked the peak of Balmis' professional career. Both sides emerged victorious: the Crown showcased itself as the sponsor and organiser of this altruistic journey, in line with prior scientific expeditions; and Balmis secured his place in Public Health history as the director of the first international vaccination campaign. This did not mean the culmination of the expedition, as other members were still administering vaccinations in the Philippines and South America. The main objective of this study was to assess the importance of the newspaper Madrid Gazette, outline the contents of the publication, authenticate the origins of the documentary sources underpinning its composition, and confirm its impact and citations throughout 19th-century Spanish publications. The components of the publication, its origins, as well as Balmis' involvement in its creation, have been substantiated. The Supplement's importance is defined by its utility as a resource for commemorating and appreciating the expedition.

La Gazeta de Madrid publicó un Suplemento el 14 de octubre de 1806 dando noticia de la llegada y recepción al Director de la Real Expedición Filantrópica de la Vacuna, Francisco Xavier Balmis, por parte del Rey Carlos IV. Había finalizado su periplo dando la vuelta al mundo por los territorios españoles de ultramar, llevando la vacuna contra la viruela brazo a brazo con la ayuda de una cadena humana de niños, creando Juntas de Vacunación e intentando encontrar vacas con cowpox. La publicación refrendó las políticas de una monarquía borbónica en decadencia y significó el momento álgido de la carrera profesional de Balmis. Ambas partes ganaban: la Corona publicitándose como financiadora y organizadora del viaje altruista en línea con expediciones científicas anteriores; Balmis pasando a la historia de la Salud Pública como director de la primera campaña internacional de vacunación. No fue el final de la expedición, ya que el resto de los expedicionarios aún seguían vacunando en Filipinas y América del Sur. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la importancia de la Gazeta de Madrid como periódico, describir los contenidos de la noticia, verificar el origen de las fuentes documentales que apoyaron su redacción y comprobar el impacto y citas que tuvo a lo largo del siglo XIX en publicaciones en idioma español. Los componentes de la noticia, su proveniencia, así como la participación de Balmis en su redacción han quedado probados. La importancia del Suplemento estribó en su utilidad como recurso para recordar y poner en valor la expedición.

La expedición Balmis en el Suplementoa la Gazeta de Madrid (14 de octubrede 1806), difusión hispana / he Balmis expedition in the Supplement to the Gazeta de Madrid (October 14, 1806), Hispanic diffusion

Gazeta de Madrid publicó un Suplemento el 14 de octubre de 1806 dando noticia de la llegada y recepción al Director de la Real Expedición Filantrópica de la Vacuna, Francisco Xavier Balmis, por parte del Rey Carlos IV. Había finalizado su periplo dando la vuelta al mundo por los territorios españoles de ultramar, llevando la vacuna contra la viruela brazo a brazo con la ayuda de una cadena humana de niños, creando Juntas de Vacunación e intentando encontrar vacas concowpox. La publicación refrendó las políticas de una monarquía borbónica en decadencia y significó el momento álgido de la carrera profesional de Balmis. Ambas partes ganaban: la Corona publicitándose como financiadora y organizadora del viaje altruista en línea con expediciones científicas anteriores; Balmis pasando a la historia de la Salud Pública como director de la primera campaña internacional de vacunación. No fue el final de la expedición, ya que el resto de los expedicionarios aún seguían vacunando en Filipinas y América del Sur. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la importancia de la Gazeta de Madrid como periódico, describir los contenidos de la noticia, verificar el origen de las fuentes documentales que apoyaron su redacción y comprobar el impacto y citas que tuvo a lo largo del siglo XIX en publicaciones en idioma español. Los componentes de la noticia, su proveniencia, así como la participación de Balmis en su redacción han quedado probados. La importancia del Suplemento estribó en su utilidad como recurso para recordar y poner en valor la expedición.(AU)

The Madrid Gazette published a Supplement on October 14, 1806, regarding the arrival of the Director of the Royal Expedition Vaccine Philanthropy, Francisco Xavier Balmis, and the reception held by King Carlos IV. Balmis had completed his journey across the Spanish overseas territories, taking the vaccine against smallpox from arm to arm with the help of a human chain of children. During this journey, Balmis also established Vaccination Boards and endeavoured to identify cows with cowpox. The publication endorsed the policies of a declining Bourbon monarchy and marked the peak of Balmis’ professional career. Both sides emerged victorious: the Crown showcased itself as the sponsor and organiser of this altruistic journey, in line with prior scientific expeditions; and Balmis secured his place in Public Health history as the director of the first international vaccination campaign. This did not mean the culmination of the expedition, as other members were still administering vaccinations in the Philippines and South America. The main objective of this study was to assess the importance of the newspaper Madrid Gazette, outline the contents of the publication, authenticate the origins of the documentary sources underpinning its composition, and confirm its impact and citations throughout 19 th -century Spanish publications. The components of the publication, its origins, as well as Balmis’ involvement in its creation, have been substantiated. The Supplement’s importance is defined by its utility as a resource for commemorating and appreciating the expedition.(AU)

Las epidemias de viruela y la introducción de la vacuna en el Virreinato del Río de la Plata / Smallpox epidemics and vaccine introduction in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata

La viruela fue una de las enfermedades epidémicas más temidas desde la antigüedad debido a su alta mortalidad y a las secuelas que dejaba en aquellos que lograban sobrevivir. En el presente trabajo se abordará el ingreso de esta enfermedad en nuestro continente, así como su manifestación a través de epidemias, brotes y focos endémicos. Al mismo tiempo se verá qué reacciones provocó dentro del ámbito médico durante los años del Virreinato del Río de la Plata. Se analizarán los problemas que surgieron con el uso de la vacuna importada, así como el hallazgo de nuestra vacuna local, finalizando con los comienzos de la organización de los servicios de vacunación obligatoria. (AU)

Smallpox was one of the most feared epidemic diseases since ancient times due to its high mortality and the sequelae caused in those that managed to survive. In the present work, the introduction of this disease into our continent will be addressed as well as its manifestation through epidemics, outbreaks, and endemic foci. At the same time, the reactions this disease caused inside the medical field during the years of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata will be observed. The problems that arose from the usage of the imported vaccine and the discovery of our local vaccine will be analyzed, and it will finish with the beginnings of the organization of the mandatory vaccination services. (AU)

Poxes great and small: The stories behind their names.

The word "pox" indicated, during the late 15th century, a disease characterized by eruptive sores. When an outbreak of syphilis began in Europe during that time, it was called by many names, including the French term "la grosse verole" ("the great pox"), to distinguish it from smallpox, which was termed "la petite verole" ("the small pox"). Chickenpox was initially confused with smallpox until 1767, when the English physician William Heberden (1710-1801) provided a detailed description of chickenpox, differentiating it from smallpox. The cowpox virus was used by Edward Jenner (1749-1823) to develop a successful vaccine against smallpox. He devised the term "variolae vaccinae" ("smallpox of the cow") to denote cowpox. Jenner's pioneering work on a smallpox vaccine has led to the eradication of this disease and opened the way to preventing other infectious diseases, such as monkeypox, a poxvirus that is closely related to smallpox and that is currently infecting persons around the world. This contribution tells the stories behind the names of the various "poxes" that have infected humans: the great pox (syphilis), smallpox, chickenpox, cowpox, and monkeypox. These infectious diseases not only share a common "pox" nomenclature, but are also closely interconnected in medical history.

History of vaccine and immunization: Vaccine-hesitancy discussion in Germany in XIX century.

Vaccination is the most celebrated and denigrated achievement of medicine and public health - not only today, but since Edward Jenner's time (1798). In fact, the idea of injecting a mild form of "disease" into a healthy person was attacked even earlier than the discovery of vaccines. The forerunner of Jenner's vaccination with bovine lymph was the inoculation of smallpox material from person to person, which, known in Europe since the beginning of the eighteenth century, was a target of harsh criticism. The reasons for criticizing the Jennerian vaccination and its mandatory practice were medical, anthropological, biological (vaccination is not safe), religious and ethical (it is wrong to inoculate a healthy person with disease), and political (vaccination is a threat to individual freedom). As such, anti-vaccination groups emerged in England, where inoculation was adopted early, as well as overall in Europe and in the United States. This paper focuses on the lesser known debate that arose in Germany in the years 1852-53 about the medical practice of vaccination. This is an a important topic of public health that has aroused a wide debate and comparison especially in recent years and now with pandemic on Sars-Cov-2 (Covid-19) and will probably be the subject of further reflection and consideration in the coming years.

A great inspiration for today's vaccination efforts: Biographical sketch of Francisco Xavier Balmis (1753-1819).

The management of the coronavirus pandemic required huge worldwide vaccination efforts. In this endeavour, healthcare workers faced the twofold challenge of reaching remote areas, and persuading people to take the vaccine. As it happens, this is nothing new in the history of medicine. Health workers may indeed continue to take inspiration from Francisco Xavier Balmis, a Spanish physician of the 19th century who realised the importance of Jenner's vaccine against smallpox, and led a successful expedition to administer the vaccines in the Spanish colonial possessions of the Western hemisphere and Asia. This article presents a biographical sketch of Balmis, focusing on his expedition.

Vaccine and smallpox vaccination in nineteenth century Bahia. / Vacina e vacinação antivariólica na Bahia oitocentista.

This article aims to discuss the perceptions and actions of public authorities regarding the process of introduction, production, conservation, distribution, and application of the smallpox vaccine; the emergence of institutions associated with the vaccine and vaccination; and its main obstacles in Bahia in the nineteenth century. The article emphasizes the local and regional dynamics of this process. It addresses the problem of smallpox in colonial Bahia, the arrival of the Jennerian vaccine, the diffusion of the vaccination method, the establishment of health institutions, and the disease control measures implemented as of 1808. In the context of the post-independence and Imperial Brazil, this article addresses smallpox outbreaks and discusses the problems related to vaccine and vaccination listed by the governors of the province of Bahia and local efforts to introduce the animal vaccine. This article is based on printed primary sources published in Bahia in the nineteenth century, as well as through dialogues with specialized literature.

O objetivo do artigo é discutir as percepções e ações do poder público sobre o processo de introdução, produção, conservação, distribuição e aplicação da vacina contra a varíola, o surgimento de instituições ligadas à vacina e à vacinação e seus principais entraves na Bahia do século XIX. O artigo enfatiza a dinâmica local e regional desse processo e aborda o problema da varíola na Bahia colonial, a chegada da vacina jenneriana, a difusão do método de vacinação, a constituição de instituições de saúde e as medidas de controle da doença implantadas a partir de 1808. No contexto do pós-independência e do Brasil Imperial, aborda os surtos de varíola e discute os problemas da vacina e da vacinação relacionados pelos presidentes da província da Bahia e os esforços locais para introduzir a vacina animal. O artigo se baseia em fontes primárias impressas publicadas na Bahia no século XIX e no diálogo com a literatura especializada.

Dr. James Smith's Dream of Eradicating Smallpox and the National Vaccine Institution.

This article re-examines from a new perspective the efforts of James Smith (1771-1841), a Maryland doctor, to eradicate smallpox in the United States. As one of the few successful cowpox inoculators at the turn of the nineteenth century, Smith recognized the necessity for a public vaccine institution that could ensure the safe production and continuous preservation and circulation of vaccine matter. Thus, he devoted himself to creating statewide and national vaccine institutions funded by the state and federal governments. He established the National Vaccine Institution (NVI), but despite his efforts, the NVI existed only a short time from 1813 to 1822. Previous studies on Smith have focused on the 1813 Vaccination Act (An Act to Encourage Vaccination) and the NVI, and have evaluated them as failed projects or historically missed opportunities. However, this kind of approach does not justly place the act and institutions within Smith's larger plan and do not fully discuss the role of the NVI in his system of promoting vaccination in the United States. This article analyzes how he responded to the problems hindering cowpox vaccination, including spurious vaccine, failed vaccination, and low public acceptance of cowpox vaccine. In doing so, this study shows that Smith attempted to establish a universal and systematic vaccination system connecting citizens, government, and medical personnel through the NVI, as well as ensuring a safe and regular supply of vaccine.

Controversies and lessons from the history of smallpox: the case of massive vaccination in British Corfu (1852).

The study presents an anti-vaccination action in the 19th century involving both scientific and political motivation. The research is based on an unpublished archive, namely the registries of the British Executive Police during the massive vaccination campaign in Corfu, the capital of the British possession in the Ionian Islands-Greece (1815-1864), after the smallpox outbreak of 1852. The archival material provides information about the number of vaccinated people, namely their sex, age, nationality, the year of the previous vaccination, along with the last year when a citizen "had smallpox". The records indicated 40,858 citizens and of these, a total 21,845 (53.46%) were vaccinated. Despite the impressive organization, the vaccination project caused a great controversy at both the scientific and political level between the British authorities and the Greek Ionian Assembly. The archival material gives a diachronic message in the fields of public health, infectious disease control, and health crisis management. The lack of control by a State or local authority, combined with political instability and the public's ignorance or distrust of scientific matters, are the main factors behind the failure to prevent, restrict or eradicate infectious diseases even nowadays.

[Development and use of vaccines from the 18th century to the SARS-CoV 2 period].

This review is about the development and use of vaccines from the early smallpox vaccine in the 18th century to the forthcoming SARS-CoV 2 vaccines. Immunisations have been of paramount importance for childhood mortality and public health in general, but some obstacles have also been encountered such as vaccine failures and vaccine scepticism. This calls for continued emphasis on large phase three studies not only for demonstration of efficacy but also for safety and possible side effects. The rapid approval of SARS-CoV 2 vaccines requires special attention.

The origins and genomic diversity of American Civil War Era smallpox vaccine strains.

Vaccination has transformed public health, most notably including the eradication of smallpox. Despite its profound historical importance, little is known of the origins and diversity of the viruses used in smallpox vaccination. Prior to the twentieth century, the method, source and origin of smallpox vaccinations remained unstandardised and opaque. We reconstruct and analyse viral vaccine genomes associated with smallpox vaccination from historical artefacts. Significantly, we recover viral molecules through non-destructive sampling of historical materials lacking signs of biological residues. We use the authenticated ancient genomes to reveal the evolutionary relationships of smallpox vaccination viruses within the poxviruses as a whole.