Topical ophthalmic instillation of engineered hMSCs-derived exosomes: A novel non-invasive therapeutic strategy for ocular posterior-segment disorder.

Due to the presence of protective mechanisms and blood-ocular barriers in the eye, drugs aimed at treating posterior segment ophthalmic disorder have to be administrated mostly through periocular or intravitreal injection. In the current study, we sought to investigate whether topical ophthalmic instillation of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs)-derived exosomes can prevent and treat experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU), a posterior segment ophthalmic disease induced in animals and considered a model of human autoimmune diseases of the eye. Our studies reveal that topical ophthalmic instillation of hMSCs-derived exosomes can effectively ameliorate EAU. More importantly, we demonstrate that exosomes modified by trans-activator of transcription peptide (TAT) were more effective than naive exosomes in penetrating ocular barrier and preventing/treating EAU. Taken together, these results indicate that topical ophthalmic instillation of TAT-peptide modified exosomes represents a novel non-invasive therapeutic strategy for posterior-segment ophthalmic disorders.

Vitreoretinal Interface Cells Correlate In Vivo With Uveitis Activity and Decrease With Anti-Inflammatory Treatment.

Purpose: To highlight the utility of en face swept-source optical coherence tomography angiography (SS-OCTA) in assessing vitreoretinal interface cells (VRICs) of patients with active uveitis and their dynamics. Methods: In this prospective, single-center study, 20 eyes from patients with active uveitis were analyzed using six 6 × 6-mm macular scans at three time points: active inflammation (baseline), clinically improving (T1), and resolved inflammation (T2). VRICs were visualized using 3-µm en face OCT slabs on the inner limiting membrane. The variation of VRIC number, density, and size over time was assessed, and VRIC measurements were compared with clinical grading. Results: At baseline, the VRIC count was significantly higher (552.5 VRICs) than that of the healthy controls (478.2 VRICs), with a density of 15.3 cells/mm2. VRIC number decreased significantly to 394.8 (P = 0.007) at T1, with a density of 10.9 cells/mm2 (P = 0.007). VRIC size reduced from 6.8 µm to 6.3 µm at T1 (P = 0.009) and remained stable at T2 (P = 0.3). Correlation coefficients between inflammatory parameters (anterior chamber cells and National Eye Institute vitreous haze), and VRIC count indicated a positive correlation at baseline (r = 0.53), weakening at T1 (r = 0.36), and becoming negative at T2 (r = -0.24). Conclusions: En face SS-OCTA revealed increased VRIC number and size in active uveitis, likely due to monocyte recruitment. Post-inflammation control, VRIC number, size, and density significantly decreased, returning to normal despite residual anterior chamber cells or vitreous haze. Translational Relevance: Visualization of VRICs by in vivo OCT opens up new opportunities for therapeutic targets.

Enhanced immunosuppressive capability of mesenchymal stem cell-derived small extracellular vesicles with high expression of CD73 in experimental autoimmune uveitis.

BACKGROUND: Autoimmune uveitis is an inflammatory disease triggered by an aberrant immune response. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived small extracellular vesicles (MSC-sEVs) are emerging as potential therapeutic agents for this condition. CD73, an ectoenzyme present on MSC-sEVs, is involved in mitigating inflammation by converting extracellular adenosine monophosphate into adenosine. We hypothesize that the inhibitory effect of MSC-sEVs on experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU) could be partially attributed to the surface expression of CD73. METHODS: To investigate novel therapeutic approaches for autoimmune uveitis, we performed lentiviral transduction to overexpress CD73 on the surface of MSC-sEVs, yielding CD73-enriched MSC-sEVs (sEVs-CD73). Mice with interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (IRBP)-induced EAU were grouped randomly and treated with 50 µg MSC-sEVs, vector infected MSC-sEVs, sEVs-CD73 or PBS via single tail vein injection. We evaluated the clinical and histological features of the induced mice and analyzed the proportion and functional capabilities of T helper cells. Furthermore, T-cells were co-cultured with various MSC-sEVs in vitro, and we quantified the resulting inflammatory response to assess the potential therapeutic benefits of sEVs-CD73. RESULTS: Compared to MSC-sEVs, sEVs-CD73 significantly alleviates EAU, leading to reduced inflammation and diminished tissue damage. Treatment with sEVs-CD73 results in a decreased proportion of Th1 cells in the spleen, draining lymph nodes, and eyes, accompanied by an increased proportion of regulatory T-cells (Treg cells). In vitro assays further reveal that sEVs-CD73 inhibits T-cell proliferation, suppresses Th1 cells differentiation, and enhances Treg cells proportion. CONCLUSION: Over-expression of CD73 on MSC-sEVs enhances their immunosuppressive effects in EAU, indicating that sEVs-CD73 has the potential as an efficient immunotherapeutic agent for autoimmune uveitis.

The enigma of sclera-specific autoimmunity in scleritis.

Scleritis is a severe and painful ophthalmic disorder, in which a pathogenic role for collagen-directed autoimmunity was repeatedly suggested. We evaluated the presence of sclera-specific antibodies in a large cohort of patients with non-infectious scleritis. Therefore, we prospectively collected serum samples from 121 patients with non-infectious scleritis in a multicenter cohort study in the Netherlands. In addition, healthy (n = 39) and uveitis controls (n = 48) were included. Serum samples were tested for anti-native human type II collagen antibodies using a validated enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Further, sclera-specific antibodies were determined using indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) on primate retinal/scleral cryosections. Lastly, human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing was performed in 111 patients with scleritis. Anti-type II collagen antibodies were found in 13% of scleritis patients, in 10% of healthy controls and in 11% of uveitis controls (p = 0.91). A specific reaction to scleral nerve tissue on IIF was observed in 33% of patients with scleritis, which was higher than in healthy controls (11%; p = 0.01), but similar to uveitis controls (25%; p = 0.36). Reactivity to the scleral nerve tissue was significantly associated with earlier onset of scleritis (48 versus 56 years; p < 0.001), bilateral involvement (65% versus 42%; p = 0.01), and less frequent development of scleral necrosis (5% versus 22%; p = 0.02). HLA-B27 was found to be twice as prevalent in patients with scleritis (15.3%) compared to a healthy population (7.2%). In conclusion, scleral nerve autoantibody reactivity was more common in scleritis and uveitis patients in contrast to healthy controls. Further research is needed to characterize these scleral-nerve directed antibodies and assess their clinical value.

Steroidal nanoformulations for the treatment of uveitis: potential, promises and future perspectives.

BACKGROUND: Intraocular inflammation, commonly referred to as uveitis, is a prevalent ocular disease. The categorization of uveitis may be based on the prevailing anatomical site, which includes anterior, intermediate, and posterior uveitis. There exists a significant body of evidence indicating that T cells play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune uveitis. In addition to the presence of T cells, an elevation in levels of inflammatory cytokines and a reduction in regulatory cytokines were also noted. The primary pharmacological interventions for uveitis comprise of corticosteroids, methotrexate, anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) agents, anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) antibodies, and sirolimus. These medications offer prompt alleviation for inflammation. Nevertheless, prolonged administration of corticosteroids invariably leads to unfavorable adverse reactions. The traditional topical corticosteroids exhibit certain limitations, including inadequate transcorneal permeation and low corneal retention, leading to reduced ocular bioavailability. Consequently, there is a growing inclination towards the creation of innovative steroid drug delivery systems with the aim of reducing the potential for adverse effects, while simultaneously enhancing the drug's corneal permeation and retention. CONCLUSION: This review is an attempt to compile all the research work done so far in this field and provides a brief overview of the global efforts to develop innovative nanocarrier-based systems for corticosteroids.

Mechanisms of blood-retinal barrier disruption related to intraocular inflammation and malignancy.

Blood-retinal barrier (BRB) disruption is a common accompaniment of intermediate, posterior and panuveitis causing leakage into the retina and macular oedema resulting in vision loss. It is much less common in anterior uveitis or in patients with intraocular lymphoma who may have marked signs of intraocular inflammation. New drugs used for chemotherapy (cytarabine, immune checkpoint inhibitors, BRAF inhibitors, EGFR inhibitors, bispecific anti-EGFR inhibitors, MET receptor inhibitors and Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitors) can also cause different types of uveitis and BRB disruption. As malignant disease itself can cause uveitis, particularly from breast, lung and gastrointestinal tract cancers, it can be clinically difficult to sort out the cause of BRB disruption. Immunosuppression due to malignant disease and/or chemotherapy can lead to infection which can also cause BRB disruption and intraocular infection. In this paper we address the pathophysiology of BRB disruption related to intraocular inflammation and malignancy, methods for estimating the extent and effect of the disruption and examine why some types of intraocular inflammation and malignancy cause BRB disruption and others do not. Understanding this may help sort and manage these patients, as well as devise future therapeutic approaches.

Leflunomide for the Treatment of Immune-Mediated Uveitis in a Dog.

A 5 yr old castrated male bichon frise presented with chronic bilateral uveitis that had previously been controlled with systemic steroid administration for 6 mo, resulting in weight gain, polyuria, and polydipsia. To control the uveitis without systemic side effects, oral cyclosporine was started after discontinuing oral steroid, but discontinued one month later because of severe vomiting. Leflunomide (2 mg/kg q 12 hr) was initiated, and the uveitis symptoms resolved after 2 mo. The dose was tapered according to the remission of clinical signs, with no relapse during the following 13 mo. Leflunomide therapy was then discontinued due to vomiting caused by severe gastroenteritis and pancreatitis, and topical prednisolone monotherapy was continued . At 8 mo after discontinuation of leflunomide, bilateral uveitis recurred, and leflunomide therapy was resumed. However, the patient lost vision due to the progression of clinical signs at 33 mo after commencing leflunomide, and evisceration of the glaucomatous right eye was performed at 43 mo. Histopathologic examination revealed lymphocyte and plasma cell infiltration and melanin-laden macrophages in the uveal tissue, and the patient was diagnosed with immune-mediated uveitis. This case indicated that oral leflunomide may be a viable treatment option for canine idiopathic immune-mediated uveitis.

Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold & Zucc. extract reduces the severity of endotoxin-induced uveitis.

BACKGROUND: Uveitis is an inflammatory eye condition that threatens vision, and effective anti-inflammatory treatments with minimal side effects are necessary to treat uveitis. PURPOSE: This study aimed to investigate the effects of Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold & Zucc. against endotoxin-induced uveitis in rat and mouse models. METHODS: Endotoxin-induced uveitis models of rats and mice were used to evaluate the effects of l. erythrorhizon treatment. Clinical inflammation scores and retinal thickness were assessed in the extract of l. erythrorhizon-treated rats. Histopathological examination revealed inflammatory cell infiltration into the ciliary body. Protein concentration, cellular infiltration, and prostaglandin-E2 levels were measured in the aqueous humor of the extract of l. erythrorhizon-treated rats. Protective effects of l. erythrorhizon on the anterior segment of the eye were examined in mice with endotoxin-induced uveitis. Additionally, we investigated the effect of l. erythrorhizon on the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines [tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-6, and interleukin-8] in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated THP1 human macrophages and examined the involvement of nuclear factor kappaB/activator protein 1 and interferon regulatory factor signaling pathways. Furthermore, three components of l. erythrorhizon were identified and assessed for their inhibitory effects on LPS-induced inflammation in RAW264.7 macrophage cells. RESULTS: Treatment of the extract of l. erythrorhizon significantly reduced clinical inflammation scores and retinal thickening in rats with endotoxin-induced uveitis. Histopathological examination revealed decreased inflammatory cell infiltration into the ciliary body. The extract of l. erythrorhizon effectively reduced the protein concentration, cellular infiltration, and PG-E2 levels in the aqueous humor of rats with endotoxin-induced uveitis. In mice with endotoxin-induced uveitis, the extract of l. erythrorhizon demonstrated a protective effect on the anterior segment of the eye by reducing inflammation and retinal thickening. The extract of l. erythrorhizon suppressed the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-6, and interleukin-8) in lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in THP1 human macrophages, by modulating nuclear factor kappaB/activator protein 1 and interferon regulatory factor signaling pathways. Moreover, shikonin, acetylshikonin, and ß, ß-dimethylacryloylshikonin showed dose-dependent inhibition of nitric oxide, tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-6 production in RAW264.7 macrophage cells. CONCLUSION: The extract of l. erythrorhizon is a potential therapeutic agent for uveitis management. Administration of the extract of l. erythrorhizon led to reduced inflammation, retinal thickening, and inflammatory cell infiltration in rat and mouse models of uveitis. The compounds (shikonin, acetylshikonin, and ß, ß-dimethylacryloylshikonin) identified in this study played crucial roles in mediating the anti-inflammatory effects of l. erythrorhizon. These findings indicate that the extract of l. erythrorhizon and its constituent compounds are promising candidates for further research and development of novel treatment modalities for uveitis.

The Role of Adenosine in γδ T-Cell Regulation of Th17 Responses in Experimental Autoimmune Uveitis.

Autoimmune diseases caused by T cells can arise from either T-helper 1 (Th1) or T-helper 17 (Th17)-type pathogenic T cells. However, it is unclear whether these two T-cell subsets are influenced by distinct pathogenic factors and whether treatments that are effective for Th1 responses also work for Th17 responses. To compare these two pathogenic responses, we conducted a systematic analysis in a mouse model of experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU) to identify the factors that promote or inhibit each response and to determine their responses to various treatments. Our study found that the two types of pathogenic responses differ significantly in their pathological progressions and susceptibility to treatments. Specifically, we observed that extracellular adenosine is a crucial pathogenic molecule involved in the pathogenicity of inflammation and T-cell reactivity and that reciprocal interaction between adenosine and gamma delta (γδ) T cells plays a significant role in amplifying Th17 responses in the development of autoimmune diseases. The potential effect of targeting adenosine or adenosine receptors is analyzed regarding whether such targeting constitutes an effective approach to modulating both γδ T-cell responses and the pathogenic Th17 responses in autoimmune diseases.

Combined Therapy of Experimental Autoimmune Uveitis by a Dual-Drug Nanocomposite Formulation with Berberine and Dexamethasone.

Purpose: Autoimmune uveitis is a kind of sight-threatening ocular and systemic disorders. Recent treatments on autoimmune uveitis still remain many limitations due to extreme complexity and undetermined pathogenesis. In this study, a novel dual-drug nanocomposite formulation is developed to treat experimental autoimmune uveitis by a combined and sustained therapy method. Methods: The dual-drug nanocomposite formulation is constructed by integrating berberine (BBR)-loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) into dexamethasone (DEX)-loaded thermogel (BBR@MSN-DEX@Gel). The BBR@MSN-DEX@Gel is characterized by transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, Fourier transform infrared spectrometer and rheometer. The in vitro drug release profile, cytotoxicity and anti-inflammation effectiveness of BBR@MSN-DEX@Gel on lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human conjunctival epithelial cells are investigated. After the in vivo drug release profile and biosafety of the dual-drug nanocomposite formulation are confirmed, its treatment effectiveness is fully assessed based on the induced experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU) Lewis rat's model. Results: The dual-drug nanocomposite formulation has good injectability and thermosensitivity, suitable for administration by an intravitreal injection. The BBR@MSN-DEX@Gel has been found to sustainably release both drugs for up to 4 weeks. The carrier materials have minimal in vitro cytotoxicity and high in vivo biosafety. BBR@MSN-DEX@Gel presents obviously anti-inflammatory effectiveness in vitro. After administration of BBR@MSN-DEX@Gel into Lewis rat's eye with EAU by an intravitreal injection, the nanocomposite formulation significantly suppresses inflammatory reaction of autoimmune uveitis via a dual-drug combined and sustained therapy method, compared with the equivalent dose of single-component formulations. Conclusion: BBR@MSN-DEX@Gel serves as a promising dual-drug nanocomposite formulation for future treatment of autoimmune uveitis.

Fundus autofluorescence in uveitis: from pathogenesis to imaging interpretation.

PURPOSE: This review aims to summarize the current fundus autofluorescence (FAF) ailment for diagnosis and follow-up of uveitis. METHODS: A thorough literature search was performed in the PubMed database. RESULTS: FAF maps the retinal pigment epithelium's (RPE) health. Therefore, several posterior infectious and non. This fast, easy-to-perform, noninvasive technique can detect and manage infectious uveitis. CONCLUSIONS: FAF serves to understand pathophysiologic mechanisms of uveitis and is a valuable prognostic indicator of themselves.

A novel peptide derived from the mannose binding lectin inhibits LPS-activated TLR4/NF-κB signaling and suppresses ocular inflammation.

Uveitis is a major cause of vision impairment worldwide. Current treatments have limited effectiveness but severe complications. Mannose binding lectin (MBL) is an important protein of the innate immune system that binds to TLR4 and suppresses LPS-induced inflammatory cytokine secretion. MBL-mediated inhibition of inflammation via the TLR4 pathway and MBL-derived peptides might be a potential therapeutics. In this study, we designed a novel MBL-derived peptide, WP-17, targeting TLR4. Bioinformatics analysis was conducted for the sequence, structure and biological properties of WP-17. The binding of WP-17 to THP-1 cells was analyzed using flow cytometry. Signaling molecules were analyzed by western blotting, and activation of NF-κB was measured by immunofluorescence-histochemical analysis. Effects of WP-17 were studied in vitro using LPS-stimulated THP-1 cells and in vivo in endotoxin-induced uveitis (EIU). Our results showed that WP-17 could bind to TLR4 expressed on macrophages, thus downregulating the expression levels of MyD88, IRAK-4, and TRAF-6, and inhibiting the downstream NF-kB signaling pathway and LPS-induced expression of TNF-α and IL-6 in THP-1 cells. Moreover, in EIU rats, intravitreal pretreatment with WP-17 demonstrated significant inhibitory effects on ocular inflammation, attenuating the clinical and histopathological manifestations of uveitis, reducing protein leakage and cell infiltration into the aqueous humor, and suppressing TNF-α and IL-6 production in ocular tissues. In summary, our study provides the first evidence of a novel MBL-derived peptide that suppressed activation of the NF-кB pathway by targeting TLR4. The peptide effectively inhibited rat uveitis and may be a promising candidate for the management of ocular inflammatory diseases.

Morroniside Ameliorates Endotoxin-Induced Uveitis by Regulating the M1/M2 Polarization Balance of Macrophages.

Background: Inflammation is closely associated with the pathogenesis of various ocular diseases. Uveitis is a condition characterized by the inflammation of the uvea and ocular tissues that causes extreme pain, decreases visual acuity, and may eventually lead to blindness. The pharmacological functions of morroniside, isolated from Cornus officinalis, are multifarious. Morroniside exerts various therapeutic effects, e.g., it ameliorates inflammation. However, the specific anti-inflammatory effect of morroniside on lipopolysaccharide-induced uveitis has not been reported widely. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effect of morroniside on uveitis in mice. Methods: An endotoxin-induced uveitis (EIU) mouse model was constructed and treated with morroniside. The inflammatory response was observed using slit lamp microscopy, and histopathological changes were observed by hematoxylin-eosin staining. The cell count in the aqueous humor was measured using a hemocytometer. The concentrations of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1ß in the ciliary body and retina were measured using ELISA kits. The expression of iNOS and Arg-1 in the ciliary body and retina was measured by immunofluorescence costaining, and western blotting was performed to measure the protein expression of JAK2, p-JAK2, STAT3, and p-STAT3 in the ciliary body and retina. Results: Morroniside effectively ameliorated the inflammatory response in EIU mice. Furthermore, morroniside significantly reduced the concentrations of IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α in the ciliary body and retina. Morroniside treatment significantly reduced the expression of iNOS in the ciliary body and retinal tissues. It also significantly inhibited p-JAK2 and p-STAT3 expression and promoted Arg-1 expression. In addition, morroniside boosted the effect of JAK inhibitors on the above indices. Conclusions: Collectively, these findings suggest that morroniside may protect against LPS-induced inflammation in uveitis by promoting M2 polarization through the inhibition of the JAK/STAT pathway.

Sleep loss potentiates Th17-cell pathogenicity and promotes autoimmune uveitis.

BACKGROUND: Sleep loss (SL) is a health issue associated with the higher risk of autoimmune and inflammatory disorders. However, the connection between SL, the immune system, and autoimmune diseases remains unknown. METHODS: We conducted mass cytometry, single-cell RNA sequencing, and flow cytometry to analyze how SL influences immune system and autoimmune disease development. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from six healthy subjects before and after SL were collected and analyzed by mass cytometry experiments and subsequent bioinformatic analysis to identify the effects of SL on human immune system. Sleep deprivation and experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU) mice model were constructed, and scRNA-seq data from mice cervical draining lymph nodes were generated to explore how SL influences EAU development and related autoimmune responses. RESULTS: We found compositional and functional changes in human and mouse immune cells after SL, especially in effector CD4+ T and myeloid cells. SL upregulated serum GM-CSF levels in healthy individuals and in patients with SL-induced recurrent uveitis. Experiments in mice undergoing SL or EAU demonstrated that SL could aggravate autoimmune disorders by inducing pathological immune cell activation, upregulating inflammatory pathways, and promoting intercellular communication. Furthermore, we found that SL promoted Th17 differentiation, pathogenicity, and myeloid cells activation through the IL-23Th17GM-CSF feedback mechanism, thus promoting EAU development. Lastly, an anti-GM-CSF treatment rescued SL-induced EAU aggravation and pathological immune response. CONCLUSIONS: SL promoted Th17 cells pathogenicity and autoimmune uveitis development, especially through the interaction between Th17 and myeloid cells involving GM-CSF signaling, providing possible therapeutic targets for the SL-related pathological disorders.

Ophthalmic and immunopathological characterization of systemic infectious diseases in cats.

Ocular involvement in systemic diseases is frequent in cats; however, without concurrent clinical and ophthalmic examinations with gross and/or histologic analysis of the eye, these findings can be underdiagnosed. This article aims to provide gross, histologic, and immunohistochemical characteristics of ocular lesions from cats submitted to necropsy, focusing on those caused by systemic infectious agents. Cats that died due to a systemic infectious disease were selected based on necropsy diagnosis and presence of ocular lesions. Gross, histologic, and immunohistochemical findings were recorded. From April 2018 to September 2019, 849 eyes of 428 cats were evaluated. Histologic abnormalities were seen in 29% of cases, which were classified as inflammatory (41%), neoplastic (32%), degenerative (19%), and metabolic/vascular (8%). Macroscopic changes were present in one-third of eyes with histologic lesions. Of these, 40% were attributed to inflammatory or neoplastic diseases associated with infectious agents. The most important infectious agents causing ocular disease in this study were feline leukemia virus, feline infectious peritonitis virus, and Cryptococcus sp. The most common ocular abnormalities associated with infectious agents were uveitis (anterior, posterior, or panuveitis), optic neuritis, and meningitis of the optic nerve. Ocular lesions secondary to systemic infections in cats are frequent; however, these are not always diagnosed because gross lesions are less common than histologic lesions. Therefore, both gross and histologic evaluation of the eyes of cats is recommended, mainly for cases in which the clinical suspicion or necropsy diagnosis suggests that an infectious agent might be related to the cause of death.

Evaluation of Vitreolenticular Interface in Eyes with Fuchs Uveitis.

PURPOSE: To investigate the vitreo-lenticular interface (Berger space) in Fuchs uveitis (FU). METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 20 FU patients (Group 1), the fellow eyes of patients (Group 2) and 20 healthy individuals (Group 3). RESULTS: Berger space was detected in all, and hyperreflective spots were identified in Berger spaces in 65% of FU eyes through optical coherence tomography (OCT). The measurements of Berger space the distance in central, nasal, and temporal 2 mm were 715 ± 101µ, 620 ± 66µ, and 676 ± 76µ in group 1; 370 ± 40µ, 321 ± 41µ, 297 ± 39µ in group 2 and 290 ± 37µ, 267 ± 32µ, 227 ± 28µ in group 3. There was a statistical difference between groups 1, 2nd, and 3rd in all the values. CONCLUSION: The detection of the Berger space is the crucial finding of this study. Visualizing the vitreolenticular area may reveal new insights for pathology and OCT-guided investigations.

[The function and changes of immune cells in autoimmune uveitis].

Uveitis is a common ocular disease and may cause serious damage of visual function. The pathogenesis of uveitis is closely related to its autoimmune response. The Th1 cells and Th17 cells were identified to play a key role in the occurrence of autoimmune uveitis and experimental autoimmune uveitis, whilst the Th17 cells were found to be closely associated with disease recurrence. The regulatory T cells (Tregs) were found to be involved in the regression of inflammation. The dysfunction and ratio of Tregs were the major causes for persistence and recurrence of uveitis. Th17 cells and Tregs can also interconvert with each other under certain conditions. Regulating the Th17/Tregs balance might be a potential novel approach to alleviating inflammation and hence providing the treatment for uveitis.

The Next Steps in Ocular Imaging in Uveitis.

PURPOSE: To describe the future steps and advances in the field of ocular imaging in uveitis. METHODS: Narrative review. RESULTS: There have been numerous advances in the field of imaging in uveitis in the past decade. Advanced techniques of imaging of the vitreous, vitreo-retinal interface, retinochoroid, and the sclera can provide significant information that helps in understanding the disease pathogenesis and manifestations. Imaging also helps in establishing a diagnosis in challenging cases, along with the laboratory and other assays. Notable developments in ocular imaging include wide-field and ultra-wide field imaging (including angiographies), automated quantification of the retinochoroidal vasculature using optical coherence tomography (OCT) and OCT angiography, quantification of vitreous cells, and intraoperative use of imaging in uveitis, among others. CONCLUSIONS: We have summarized several technological achievements in ocular imaging in the field of uveitis and provided insights into the potential future developments.