Estimación del presupuesto de vacunas del PAI-Paraguay 2007-2022 y el impacto de posibles cambios / Estimation of the Vaccination Budget for the Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI)- Paraguay 2007-2022 and the Impact of Possible Changes / Estimativa do orçamento de vacinas do PAI-Paraguai 2007 - 2022 e o impacto de possíveis mudanças

Introducción: el programa de vacunación es una intervención de salud pública cuyo propósito es controlar o eliminar enfermedades inmunoprevenibles. El objetivo de este trabajo fue estimar la evolución del presupuesto en vacunas entre 2007 y 2022, y el impacto de potenciales mejoras en el calendario de vacunaciones de Paraguay. Método: se estimó la evolución del presupuesto en vacunas según los cambios entre 2007 y 2022, y el impacto de esquemas alternativos versus el actual, que incluyen la vacuna contra la influenza cuádruple, séxtuple en lactantes, el agregado de la vacuna contra papiloma en varones y meningococo ACYW en adolescentes. La perspectiva del análisis fue la del Ministerio de Salud Pública y el horizonte temporal de un año. Los resultados de las alternativas se expresan como impacto presupuestal versus el año 2022. Resultados: entre 2007 y 2022 la cantidad de biológicos del Programa Ampliado de Inmunizaciones pasó de 11 a 18 e incorporó indicaciones de algunas vacunas. Se estima que el presupuesto se incrementó de 3,8 a 29,9 millones de dólares entre los extremos de la serie. Las alternativas implicarían un incremento de 13%, 35%, 5% y 10%, individualmente. El incremento en conjunto alcanza el 62%. Conclusiones: el aumento del gasto en vacunas fue de ocho veces entre 2007 y 2022. Se estima el impacto presupuestal en diferentes escenarios que se interpretan como mejoras comparadas con el actual de 2022, siendo el incremento más exigente de un 35%. La evidencia generada puede colaborar en el proceso de toma de decisiones acerca de esta política pública en Paraguay.

Introduction: the vaccination program is a public health intervention aimed at controlling or eliminating vaccine-preventable diseases. The objective of the study was to estimate the evolution of the vaccine budget between 2007 and 2022 and the impact of potential improvements in Paraguay's vaccination schedule. Method: the evolution of the vaccine budget was estimated considering the changes introduced between 2007 and 2022 and the impact of alternative schedules versus the current one. These alternatives include the addition of the quadrivalent influenza vaccine, the hexavalent vaccine for infants, the inclusion of the HPV vaccine for boys, and the ACYW meningococcal ACYW vaccine for adolescents. The analysis was conducted from the perspective of the Ministry of Health, with a time horizon of one year. The results of the alternatives are expressed as budget impact compared to the year 2022. Results: between 2007 and 2022, the number of biological products in the EPI increased from 11 to 18, and additional indications for some vaccines were incorporated. The budget is estimated to have increased from 3.8 to 29.9 million USD over the series. The alternatives would result in individual increases of 13%, 35%, 5%, and 10%. The combined increase reaches 62%. Conclusions: the increase in vaccine expenditure was eightfold between 2007 and 2022. The budget impact was estimated in different scenarios, interpreted as improvements compared to the current 2022 scenario, with the most demanding increase being 35%. The generated evidence can assist in the decision-making process regarding this public policy in Paraguay.

Introdução: o programa de vacinação é uma intervenção de saúde pública cuja finalidade é controlar ou eliminar doenças imunopreveníveis. O objetivo deste estudo foi estimar a evolução do orçamento de vacinas entre 2007 e 2022 e o impacto de possíveis melhorias no cronograma de vacinação do Paraguai. Métodos: estimamos a evolução do orçamento de vacinas de acordo com as mudanças ocorridas entre 2007 e 2022 e o impacto de esquemas alternativos em relação ao atual, que incluem a vacina quádrupla contra a gripe, a sextupla em bebês, a adição da vacina contra o papilomavírus em homens e a vacina meningocócica ACYW em adolescentes. A perspectiva da análise foi a do Ministerio de Salud e o intervalo de tempo foi de um ano. Os resultados das alternativas são expressos como impacto orçamentário em relação a 2022. Resultados: Entre 2007 e 2022, o número de produtos biológicos do PAI aumentou de 11 para 18 e incorporou indicações para algumas vacinas. Estima-se que o orçamento tenha aumentado de US$ 3,8 milhões para US$ 29,9 milhões entre os extremos da série. As alternativas implicariam em um aumento de 13%, 35%, 5% e 10% individualmente. O aumento geral chega a 62%. Conclusões: o aumento nos gastos com vacinas foi de oito vezes entre 2007-2022. O impacto orçamentário é estimado em diferentes cenários que são interpretados como melhorias em comparação com o cenário de 2022, sendo que o aumento mais exigente é de 35%. As evidências geradas podem contribuir para o processo de tomada de decisão relacionado a essa política pública no Paraguai.

Correspondencia vacunación-inmunización como necesidad social y reto para la ciencia y la educación médica / Vaccination-immunization correspondence as a social need and challenge for science and medical education

Introducción: La vacunación constituye el arma preventiva más efectiva para las enfermedades trasmisibles que conoce la humanidad. Hacer que las vacunas aplicadas sean realmente inmunizantes resulta la responsabilidad de los profesionales de la atención primaria. Del mismo modo, es importante que se acepte, sin recelo, la vacunación, sobre todo en la situación epidemiológica actual. Objetivo: Describir las implicaciones sociales, económicas y éticas relacionadas con la existencia de vacunas teóricamente no inmunizantes. Métodos: Se emplearon los resultados de un programa de intervención educativa en edades pediátricas en el Policlínico 13 de marzo. Se utilizó la prueba de rangos con signo de Wilcoxon, con índice de confianza del 95 por ciento. Resultados: Inicialmente, predominó el nivel inadecuado de conocimiento, que luego mejoró significativamente. Se recuperaron 48 niños no vacunados y 29 vacunaciones no inmunizados. Conclusiones: No existe correspondencia entre las coberturas vacunales y la inmunización. Están instauradas, como correctas, falsas contraindicaciones para la vacunación. La intervención educativa fue efectiva, y se hizo patente la pertinencia de programas de pregrado y posgrado que perfeccionen la formación de los profesionales y la calidad en el desempeño profesional(AU)

Introduction: Vaccination is the most effective preventive weapon for communicable diseases known to humanity. It is the responsibility of primary health care professionals to ensure that the administered vaccines are truly immunizing. Likewise, it is important that vaccination be accepted without hesitations, especially in the current epidemiological situation. Objective: To describe the social, economic and ethical implications related to the existence of theoretically nonimmunizing vaccines. Methods: The results of an educational intervention program in pediatric ages at 13 de Marzo Policlinic were used. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used, with a confidence index of 95 percent. Results: Initially, an inadequate level of knowledge predominated, which later improved significantly. Forty-eight unvaccinated children and 29 unimmunized children recovered. Conclusions: There is no correspondence between vaccination coverage and immunization. False contraindications for vaccination are established as correct. The educational intervention was effective, while the relevance became evident for undergraduate and postgraduate programs to improve the training of professionals and the quality of professional performance(AU)

Cost-effectiveness of dengue vaccination in Puerto Rico.

An effective and widely used vaccine could reduce the burden of dengue virus (DENV) around the world. DENV is endemic in Puerto Rico, where the dengue vaccine CYD-TDV is currently under consideration as a control measure. CYD-TDV has demonstrated efficacy in clinical trials in vaccinees who had prior dengue virus infection. However, in vaccinees who had no prior dengue virus infection, the vaccine had a modestly elevated risk of hospitalization and severe disease. The WHO therefore recommended a strategy of pre-vaccination screening and vaccination of seropositive persons. To estimate the cost-effectiveness and benefits of this intervention (i.e., screening and vaccination of seropositive persons) in Puerto Rico, we simulated 10 years of the intervention in 9-year-olds using an agent-based model. Across the entire population, we found that 5.5% (4.6%-6.3%) of dengue hospitalizations could be averted. However, we also found that 0.057 (0.045-0.073) additional hospitalizations could occur for every 1,000 people in Puerto Rico due to DENV-naïve children who were vaccinated following a false-positive test results for prior exposure. The ratio of the averted hospitalizations among all vaccinees to additional hospitalizations among DENV-naïve vaccinees was estimated to be 19 (13-24). At a base case cost of vaccination of 382 USD, we found an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of 122,000 USD per QALY gained. Our estimates can provide information for considerations to introduce the CYD-TDV vaccine in Puerto Rico.

Análisis económico de las vacunas del primer año de vida con componente pertussis en el contexto de la ini-ciativa mundial de erradicación de la poliomielitis en Argentina / Vaccination in children under 1 year with pertussis component in the context of the global initiative for the eradication of poliomyelitis in Argentina: economic analysis

INTRODUCCIÓN: La Iniciativa Mundial de Erradicación de la Polio promueve la introducción de vacuna de polio inactivada (IPV) en sus programas, con la posterior retirada de Sabin (bOPV). OBJETIVO: Construir un modelo de económico que compare diferentes esquemas de vacunación para la prevención de polio y tosferina en el primer año de vida. Material y MÉTODOS: Análisis de cuatro escenarios de vacunación del esquema primario para Argentina, en base a los precios de las vacunas, costos del programa y reactogenicidad de vacuna celular o acelular para Bordetella pertussis: - Escenario 1 (caso base): dos dosis de IPV, una dosis de bOPV y tres dosis de vacuna pentavalente (DTwP-HB-Hib); - Escenario 2: tres dosis IPV y de pentavalente; - Escenario 3: tres dosis de hexavalente (DTaP-HepB-IPV-Hib); - Escenario 4: dos dosis de hexavalente más una dosis de pentavalente más IPV. RESULTADOS: El costo incremental en base al escenario 1 fue de USD 3.716.671; 19.696.668 y 14.383.341 para los escenarios 2, 3 y 4, respectivamente. Para la reactogenicidad, la diferencia fue de USD -14.178.240 comparado el caso base con el escenario 3. DISCUSIÓN: La inversión de incorporación de full IPV y costos asociados se modifica según tipo de vacuna y reactogenicidad asociada al componente B. pertussis.

BACKGROUND: Global Polio Eradication Initiative promotes the introduction of inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) in its programs, with withdrawal of Sabin (bOPV). There is no an economic analysis of the investment related to the incorporation of IPV vaccines together with a whole cell Bordetella pertussis vaccine or combined with acellular hexavalent. AIM: An economic model that compares different vaccination schemes for the prevention of polio and pertussis in the first year of life was carried out. METHODS: Four vaccination scenarios for the primary scheme based on Argentina demographic and costs data were developed: - Scenario 1 (base case): two doses of IPV, one dose of bOPV and three doses of pentavalent (DTwP-HepB-Hib) vaccine; - Scenario 2: three doses of IPV plus three doses of pentavalent; - Scenario 3: three doses of hexavalent; - Scenario 4: two doses of hexavalent plus one dose of pentavalent plus IPV. RESULTS: The incremental cost based on scenario 1 was USD 3.716.671; 19.696.668 and 14.383.341 for scenarios 2, 3 and 4 respectively. In terms of reactogenicity savings was -14.178.240 compared base case with scenario 3. DISCUSSION: Full IPV introduction investment and costs associated were modified according to the type of vaccine and reactogenicity related with the B. pertussis component.

Use of Cost-Effectiveness Analyses for Decisions About Vaccination Programs for Meningococcal Disease in the United States, United Kingdom, The Netherlands, and Canada.

INTRODUCTION: Meningococcal vaccines to protect against invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) vary in terms of vaccine technology and serogroup coverage (Polysaccharide MnACWY, conjugated C and ACWY, outer membrane vesicle-based or protein-based B vaccines), and the national recommendations for each of them vary in terms of target population and number of doses. We sought to understand factors associated with the evolution of meningococcal vaccination program recommendations in four countries with formal evaluation processes: the UK, US, the Netherlands, and Canada. AREAS COVERED: A targeted review of published literature and internet sources for the four countries relating to meningococcal vaccination decision-making was conducted. The review focused on the impact of cost-effectiveness analyses on vaccine policy decisions and the extent to which variation in incidence of IMD and its potential catastrophic consequences influenced policy decisions.The evolution of meningococcal vaccine recommendations in the four countries was mainly driven by changes in vaccine availability and changes in serogroup incidence. Public pressure due to the catastrophic nature of IMD influenced recommendations. The role of cost-effectiveness analyses varied across the 4 countries. EXPERT OPINION: The value of implementing meningococcal vaccination programs should be assessed using factors beyond those included in traditional cost-effectiveness analyses.

Budget impact analysis of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines in Colombia.

Objective: Pneumococcal diseases including invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD), pneumonia, and acute otitis media (AOM) impose a substantial public health burden. This study performed a budget impact analysis of the use of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) in the National Immunization Program (NIP) in Colombia.Methods: We compared the direct medical cost of the scenario without and with PCV vaccination using either pneumococcal non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae protein D conjugate vaccine (PHiD-CV) or 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV-13) over 5 years (2020-2024) from the health-care system perspective. Vaccine efficacy estimates were obtained from published sources and vaccine prices were taken from the Pan-American Health Organization Revolving Fund. Vaccine coverage was assumed to be 90% based on Colombia data.Results: Using PHiD-CV in the NIP in Colombia would reduce the estimated cost for treating pneumococcal disease by US$46.1 m over the 2020-2024 period (US$40.2 m using PCV-13), with a budget impact of US$100.1 m for PHiD-CV (US$121.4 m for PCV-13), and would cost US$3.1 m less per year on vaccine doses than using PCV-13.Conclusion: These findings are potentially valuable for the selection of vaccines for their national immunization programs under conditions of budgetary constraint.

The demand for a COVID-19 vaccine in Ecuador.

In Latin America, the country of Ecuador was one of the first and most severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to evaluate the demand for a COVID-19 vaccine in Ecuador by estimating individuals' willingness to pay (WTP) for the vaccine, and by assessing the effect of vaccine attributes (duration of protection and efficacy) and individuals' characteristics on this valuation. The sample used (N = 1,050) was obtained through an online survey conducted from April 2 to April 7, 2020. Two levels of vaccine efficacy (70% and 98%) and two levels of vaccine duration of protection (1 and 20 years) were considered. The willingness to pay estimates were obtained using a double-bounded dichotomous-choice contingent valuation format. Survey results show that a very large proportion of individuals (at least 97%) were willing to accept a COVID-19 vaccine, and at least 85% of individuals were willing to pay a positive amount for that vaccine. Conservative estimates of the average WTP values ranged from USD 147.61 to 196.65 and the median WTP from USD 76.9 to 102.5. Only the duration of protection was found to influence individuals' WTP for the vaccine (p < 0.01). On average, respondents were willing to pay 30% more for a COVID-19 vaccine with 20 years of protection relative to the vaccine with 1 year of protection. Regression results show that WTP for the vaccine was associated with income, employment status, the perceived probability of needing hospitalization if contracting the virus causing COVID-19, and region of residence.

Incremental clinical and economic impact of recombinant zoster vaccination: real-world data in a budget impact model.

BACKGROUND: In 2017, the FDA approved the adjuvanted recombinant zoster vaccine (RZV) for the prevention of herpes zoster (HZ) in immunocompetent adults aged 50 years and older. RZV joined zoster vaccine live (ZVL) as U.S.-marketed vaccines against HZ. The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices preferentially recommended use of RZV over ZVL. In order to inform population-based decision makers (PBDMs) about the incremental clinical and economic impact of RZV adoption, budget impact (BI) models may be used. Populating such models with national data can inform PBDMs about the incremental value of RZV adoption nationally; however, heterogeneity across health plans requires the inclusion of plan-specific data to ensure the relevance of modeling outcomes for plan-specific decision makers. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the clinical and economic outcomes associated with the adoption of RZV in nationally representative populations with commercial and Medicare coverage and to demonstrate the effect of the heterogeneity of health plans using real-world data from a large, integrated delivery network (IDN). METHODS: We used a publicly available BI model. The model accounts for national and IDN-collected population characteristics (size, age distribution) and epidemiological data (incidence of HZ and complications, HZ recurrence rate), vaccine characteristics from randomized controlled trials and observational studies (efficacy, waning, second dose compliance for RZV, adverse event rate), national costs (vaccine, direct medical for HZ, complications, and vaccine adverse events), and current and anticipated vaccine coverage. We assessed incremental clinical (HZ cases and complications) and economic (per-member-per-month [PMPM] costs) impact at 5-year to 15-year time horizons, comparing scenarios where RZV is solely implemented with one where only ZVL is utilized. RESULTS: Following the adoption of RZV, the incremental HZ cases avoided over 5 and 15 years were estimated to be 1,800 and 15,000 for a commercial plan, 3,800 and 21,000 for a Medicare plan, and 8,600 and 71,000 for a specific IDN. The incremental PMPM budget impact over the same time horizons was estimated to be $0.42 and $0.31, respectively, for a commercial plan, $0.35 and $0.10 for a Medicare plan, and $0.39 and $0.25 for a specific IDN. The differences in results across plans resulted from the population age distribution, the vaccine copay (applied in the Medicare scenario only), the vaccine coverage in the plan, and other plan-specific factors affecting disease epidemiology and costs per case of HZ. CONCLUSIONS: Model projections indicated that RZV adoption avoided HZ cases and related complications, with the PMPM budget impact dependent on plan-specific factors. As health gains increased over time, the incremental costs incurred were found to decrease as the shorter-term costs of adopting the new vaccine were increasingly offset by the longer-term benefits of vaccination. DISCLOSURES: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals SA funded this study (GSK study identifier: HO-17-18378) and was involved in all stages of study conduct, including analysis of the data. GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals SA also paid all costs associated with the development and publication of this manuscript. Patterson, Van Oorschot, and Curran are employees of the GSK group of companies and hold shares in the GSK group of companies. Herring, Carrico, and Zhang are employees of RTI Health Solutions, which received funding via a contractual agreement with the GSK group of companies to perform the work contributing to this research. Ackerson, Bruxvoort, Sy, and Tseng are employees of Kaiser Permanente Southern California, which was contracted by the GSK group of companies for the conduct of this study and were members of the KPSC study team. Ackerson, Bruxvoort, Sy, and Tseng report research contracts with the following pharmaceutical companies unrelated to this study: Dynavax (Ackerson, Bruxvoort, and Sy); the GSK group of companies (Ackerson, Bruxvoort, Sy, and Tseng); Novavax (Ackerson, Sy, and Tseng); and Seqirus (Ackerson, Bruxvoort, Sy, and Tseng). Tseng reports having served as a paid consultant for the GSK group of companies. The authors declare no other financial and nonfinancial relationships and activities. Findings from this study were presented at AMCP Nexus 2019; October 29-November 1, 2019; National Harbor, MD.

Impact of quadrivalent influenza vaccines in Brazil: a cost-effectiveness analysis using an influenza transmission model.

BACKGROUND: Influenza epidemics significantly weight on the Brazilian healthcare system and its society. Public health authorities have progressively expanded recommendations for vaccination against influenza, particularly to the pediatric population. However, the potential mismatch between the trivalent influenza vaccine (TIV) strains and those circulating during the season remains an issue. Quadrivalent vaccines improves vaccines effectiveness by preventing any potential mismatch on influenza B lineages. METHODS: We evaluate the public health and economic benefits of the switch from TIV to QIV for the pediatric influenza recommendation (6mo-5yo) by using a dynamic epidemiological model able to consider the indirect impact of vaccination. Results of the epidemiological model are then imputed in a health-economic model adapted to the Brazilian context. We perform deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analysis to account for both epidemiological and economical sources of uncertainty. RESULTS: Our results show that switching from TIV to QIV in the Brazilian pediatric population would prevent 406,600 symptomatic cases, 11,300 hospitalizations and almost 400 deaths by influenza season. This strategy would save 3400 life-years yearly for an incremental direct cost of R$169 million per year, down to R$86 million from a societal perspective. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios for the switch would be R$49,700 per life-year saved and R$26,800 per quality-adjusted life-year gained from a public payer perspective, and even more cost-effective from a societal perspective. Our results are qualitatively similar in our sensitivity analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis shows that switching from TIV to QIV to protect children aged 6mo to 5yo in the Brazilian influenza epidemiological context could have a strong public health impact and represent a cost-effective strategy from a public payer perspective, and a highly cost-effective one from a societal perspective.

How much does it cost to prevent and control visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil? Comparing different measures in dogs.

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is an important zoonosis in Brazil. Dogs are considered the main domestic reservoirs of the disease in the country; hence, control measures are focused on these reservoirs. Despite efforts to prevent and control VL, important reductions in disease prevalence and incidence have not been identified, stimulating the development and application of new strategies. The choice and implementation of new control strategies can benefit from the application of mathematical models that allow the simulation of different strategies in different scenarios. Selecting the best strategy to be implemented is also supported by cost-effectiveness studies. Here we used the results of a mathematical model in which scenarios, including isolated use of the vaccine and insecticide-impregnated collar (IIC), both at different coverage rates, were simulated to conduct a cost-effectiveness study. The costs were calculated for each scenario considering a simulation period of four years. Collar application in both infected and non-infected animals was the most cost-effective strategy. For example, to reduce the prevalence in humans and dogs by approximately 70%, the costs ranged from $250,000 and $550,000 for the IICs and vaccination, respectively. Even in the scenario with 40% loss/replacement of IICs, this measure was more advantageous in terms of cost-effectiveness than vaccination. If the vaccine were applied with culling of seropositive tested dogs, then the measure became more effective with a reduced cost compared with the vaccine alone. The use of the three first consecutive vaccine doses had the greatest impact on the cost of the vaccination strategy. The advantage of using IICs is that there is no need for a prior diagnosis, unlike vaccination, reducing costs and facilitating implementation. The present study aims to contribute to strategies to reduce hosts infected with VL by reducing public expenditure.

Longitudinal profiling of the vaccination coverage in Brazil reveals a recent change in the patterns hallmarked by differential reduction across regions.

OBJECTIVE: Vaccination coverage is decreasing worldwide, favoring the potential reemergence of vaccine-preventable diseases. In this study, we performed a longitudinal characterization of vaccination coverage in Brazil and compared the profiles between the distinct regions in the country to test whether there has been a substantial change over the last 5 years. METHODS: De-identified publicly available data were retrieved from the repository of the Brazilian Ministry of Health, comprising detailed information on vaccination coverage in all age groups between 1994 and 2019. The vaccination coverage for the whole country and for each Brazilian region, by year, was examined, and a time-series pattern analysis was performed. RESULTS: A significant decrease in overall vaccination coverage across the country regions was observed between 2017 and 2019, especially in childhood immunization. A reduction in BCG, hepatitis B, influenza, and rotavirus vaccine coverage was observed. Conversely, vaccines against measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, and meningococcus showed an increase in coverage. Region-specific changes in vaccination patterns within the study period were observed. CONCLUSIONS: A substantial reduction in vaccination coverage was detected in Brazil, a country already highly susceptible to the emergence of epidemic infectious diseases. Continuing evaluation of the immunization program actions may help to improve vaccination coverage and prevent new epidemics.

Post-vaccination anti-HBs testing among healthcare workers: More economical than post-exposure management for Hepatitis B.

OBJECTIVE: to compare the direct cost, from the perspective of the Unified Health System, of assessing the post-vaccination serological status with post-exposure management for hepatitis B among health care workers exposed to biological material. METHOD: cross-sectional study and cost-related, based on accident data recorded in the System of Information on Disease Notification between 2006 and 2016, where three post-exposure and one pre-exposure management scenarios were evaluated: A) accidents among vaccinated workers with positive and negative serological status tests for hepatitis B, exposed to known and unknown source-person; B) handling unvaccinated workers exposed to a known and unknown source-person; C) managing vaccinated workers and unknown serological status for hepatitis B and D) cost of the pre-exposure post-vaccination test. Accidents were assessed and the direct cost was calculated using the decision tree model. RESULTS: scenarios where workers did not have protective titles after vaccination or were unaware of the serological status and were exposed to a positive or unknown source-person for hepatitis B. CONCLUSION: the direct cost of hepatitis B prophylaxis, including confirmation of serological status after vaccination would be more economical for the health system.

[Massive canine and feline vaccination in Mexico: poor governance and market failure]. / Vacunación canina y felina masiva en México: pobre rectoría y fallo de mercado.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze decision-making concerning stewardship and procurement mechanisms in the context of the Program for Prevention and Control of Human Rabies and the National Canine and Feline Vaccination Week in Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The information was obtained through requests to the National Institute of Transparency, Access to Information and Protection of Personal Data. RESULTS: From 2009 to 2017, 158.9 million doses of canine rabies vaccine (VAR-CF) were applied with an estimated budget of 1 915 million pesos. Our findings suggest weak stewardship and ineffective governance that allows monopolistic practices and fragmented and direct purchases. Prices for the same product vary discretionally between states and are significantly higher than those offered at international level. CONCLUSIONS: After 30 years of operation of the SNVA-C in Mexico, high prices of the VAR-CF persist, which are indicative of a significant market failure, characterized by zero competition, asymmetric information and misaligned incentive structures that precluded favorable price negotiation.

OBJETIVO: Analizar la rectoría y los mecanismos de procuración de insumos en el contexto del Programa de Acción Específico de Prevención y Control de la Rabia Humana y la Semana Nacional de Vacunación Antirrábica canina y felina en México (SNVA-C). MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: La información se obtuvo mediante solicitudes al Instituto Nacional de Transparencia, Acceso a la Información y Protección de Datos Personales. RESULTADOS: De 2009 a 2017 se aplicaron 158.9 millones de dosis de vacuna antirrábica canina y felina (VAR-CF) por un monto de compra aproximado de 1 915 MDP. Se documentó una débil rectoría que permite prácticas monopólicas y compras fragmentadas y directas. Las adquisiciones se han fincado con precios que varían entre entidades federativas y son significativamente más altos que los precios internacionales. CONCLUSIONES: Después de 30 años de operación de la SNVA-C en México, persisten pagos excesivos para la VAR-CF, los cuales son indicativos de una falla importante del mercado, caracterizada por nula competencia, información asimétrica y estructuras de incentivos desalineadas que impiden obtener un precio competitivo.

Vacunación canina y felina masiva en México: pobre rectoría y fallo de mercado / Massive canine and feline vaccination in Mexico: poor governance and market failure

Resume: Objetivo: Analizar la rectoría y los mecanismos de procuración de insumos en el contexto del Programa de Acción Específico de Prevención y Control de la Rabia Humana y la Semana Nacional de Vacunación Antirrábica canina y felina en México (SNVA-C). Material y métodos: La información se obtuvo mediante solicitudes al Instituto Nacional de Transparencia, Acceso a la Información y Protección de Datos Personales. Resultados: De 2009 a 2017 se aplicaron 158.9 millones de dosis de vacuna antirrábica canina y felina (VAR-CF) por un monto de compra aproximado de 1 915 MDP. Se documentó una débil rectoría que permite prácticas monopólicas y compras fragmentadas y directas. Las adquisiciones se han fincado con precios que varían entre entidades federativas y son significativamente más altos que los precios internacionales. Conclusión: Después de 30 años de operación de la SNVA-C en México, persisten pagos excesivos para la VAR-CF, los cuales son indicativos de una falla importante del mercado, caracterizada por nula competencia, información asimétrica y estructuras de incentivos desalineadas que impiden obtener un precio competitivo.

Abstract: Objective: To analyze decision-making concerning stewardship and procurement mechanisms in the context of the Program for Prevention and Control of Human Rabies and the National Canine and Feline Vaccination Week in Mexico. Materials and methods: The information was obtained through requests to the National Institute of Transparency, Access to Information and Protection of Personal Data. Results: From 2009 to 2017, 158.9 million doses of canine rabies vaccine (VAR-CF) were applied with an estimated budget of 1 915 million pesos. Our findings suggest weak stewardship and ineffective governance that allows monopolistic practices and fragmented and direct purchases. Prices for the same product vary discretionally between states and are significantly higher than those offered at international level. Conclusions: After 30 years of operation of the SNVA-C in Mexico, high prices of the VAR-CF persist, which are indicative of a significant market failure, characterized by zero competition, asymmetric information and misaligned incentive structures that precluded favorable price negotiation.

Valuing the cost of improving Chilean primary vaccination: a cost minimization analysis of a hexavalent vaccine.

BACKGROUND: The phased withdrawal of oral polio vaccine (OPV) and the introduction of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) is central to the polio 'end-game' strategy. METHODS: We analyzed the cost implications in Chile of a switch from the vaccination scheme consisting of a pentavalent vaccine with whole-cell pertussis component (wP) plus IPV/OPV vaccines to a scheme with a hexavalent vaccine with acellular pertussis component (aP) and IPV (Hexaxim®) from a societal perspective. Cost data were collected from a variety of sources including national estimates and previous vaccine studies. All costs were expressed in 2017 prices (US$ 1.00 = $Ch 666.26). RESULTS: The overall costs associated with the vaccination scheme (4 doses of pentavalent vaccine plus 1 dose IPV and 3 doses OPV) from a societal perspective was estimated to be US$ 12.70 million, of which US$ 8.84 million were associated with the management of adverse events related to wP. In comparison, the cost associated with the 4-dose scheme with a hexavalent vaccine (based upon the PAHO reference price) was US$ 19.76 million. The cost of switching to the hexavalent vaccine would be an additional US$ 6.45 million. Overall, depending on the scenario, the costs of switching to the hexavalent scheme would range from an additional US$ 2.62 million to US$ 6.45 million compared with the current vaccination scheme. CONCLUSIONS: The switch to the hexavalent vaccine schedule in Chile would lead to additional acquisition costs, which would be partially offset by improved logistics, and a reduction in adverse events associated with the current vaccines.

Influenza in the school-aged population in Mexico: burden of disease and cost-effectiveness of vaccination in children.

BACKGROUND: The current national influenza vaccination schedule in Mexico does not recommend vaccination in the school-aged population (5-11 years). Currently, there are limited data from middle-income countries analysing the cost-effectiveness of influenza vaccination in this population. We explored the clinical effects and economic benefits of expanding the current national influenza vaccination schedule in Mexico to include the school-aged population. METHODS: A static 1-year model incorporating herd effect was used to assess the cost-effectiveness of expanding the current national influenza vaccination schedule of Mexico to include the school-aged population. We performed a cross-sectional epidemiological study using influenza records (2009-2018), death records (2010-2015), and discharge and hospitalisation records (2010-2016), from the databases of Mexico's Influenza Surveillance System (SISVEFLU), the National Mortality Epidemiological and Statistical System (SEED), and the Automated Hospital Discharge System (SAEH), respectively. Cost estimates for influenza cases were based on 7 scenarios using data analysed from SISVEFLU; assumptions for clinical management of cases were defined according to Mexico's national clinical guidelines. The primary health outcome for this study was the number of influenza cases avoided. A sensitivity analysis was performed using conservative and optimistic parameters (vaccination coverage: 30% / 70%, Vaccine effectiveness: 19% / 68%). RESULTS: It was estimated that expanding the influenza immunisation programme to cover school-aged population in Mexico over the 2018-2019 influenza season would result in 671,461 cases of influenza avoided (50% coverage and 50% effectiveness assumed). Associated with this were 262,800 fewer outpatient consultations; 154,100 fewer emergency room consultations; 97,600 fewer hospitalisations, and 15 fewer deaths. Analysis of cases avoided by age-group showed that 55.4% of them were in the school-aged population, and the decrease in outpatient consultations was largest in this population. There was an overall decrease in the economic burden for the Mexican health care system of 111.9 million US dollars; the immunization programme was determined to be cost-saving in the base, conservative and optimistic scenarios. CONCLUSIONS: Vaccinating school-aged population in Mexico would be cost-effective; expansion of the current national vaccination schedule to this age group is supported.

Vaccine dose usage and wastage in the Metropolitan Region of Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil: a descriptive study, 2015-2017. / Utilização e perda de doses de vacinas na Região Metropolitana de Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul: um estudo descritivo de 2015-2017.

OBJECTIVE: to estimate usage and wastage of multi-dose and single-dose vaccine vials in the Metropolitan Region of Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, from 2015 to 2017. METHODS: a descriptive study was carried out based on secondary data from the National Immunization Program Information System (SIPNI) and the Strategic Health Supplies Information System (SIES). RESULTS: a total of 12,342 records were examined; mean wastage rate was 45.8% (95%CI 39.5;51.7), while usage rate was 54.2% (95%CI 48.3;60.5); vaccines with the highest mean annual wastage rate were MMR (68.8% - 95%CI 66.5;71.1), BCG (68.1% - 95%CI 65.4;70.7), Hepatitis B (56.4% - 95%CI 53.0-59.7) and Yellow Fever (55.9% - 95%CI 51.4;60.4). CONCLUSION: the highest rates of vaccine wastage were for multi-dose vials; although single-dose vaccines also exceeded the acceptable limit defined by the World Health Organization.

The emergence of vaccine hesitancy among upper-class Brazilians: Results from four birth cohorts, 1982-2015.

Vaccine hesitancy has been increasingly reported in Brazil. We describe secular trends and socioeconomic disparities from 1982 to 2015, using data from four population-based birth cohorts carried out in the city of Pelotas. Full immunization coverage (FIC) was defined as having received four basic vaccines (one dose of BCG and measles, and three doses of polio and DTP) scheduled for the first year of life. Information on income was collected through standardized questionnaires, and the slope index of inequality (SII) was calculated to express the difference in percent points between the rich and poor extremes of the income distribution. Full immunization coverage was 80.9% (95% CI 79.8%; 82.0%) in 1982, 97.2% (96.1%; 98.0%) in 1993, 87.8% (86.7%; 88.8%) in 2004 and 77.2% (75.8%; 78.4%) in 2015. In 1982 there was a strong social gradient with higher coverage among children from wealthy families (SII = 25.0, P < 0.001); by 2015, the pattern was inverted with higher coverage among poor children (SII = -6.0; P = 0.01). Vertical immunization programs in the 1980s and creation of the National Health Services in 1980 eliminated the social gradient that had been present up to the 1980s, to reach near universal coverage. The recent decline in coverage is likely associated with the growing complexity of the vaccination schedule and underfunding of the health sector. In addition, the faster decline observed among children from wealthy families is probably due to vaccine hesitancy.

Post-vaccination anti-HBs testing among healthcare workers: More economical than post-exposure management for Hepatitis B / Teste anti-HBs pós-vacinação entre trabalhadores da saúde: mais econômico que manejo pós-exposição para Hepatite B / Pruebas anti-HBs post-vacunación entre los trabajadores de la salud: más económico que el manejo post-exposición para la Hepatitis B

Objective: to compare the direct cost, from the perspective of the Unified Health System, of assessing the post-vaccination serological status with post-exposure management for hepatitis B among health care workers exposed to biological material. Method: cross-sectional study and cost-related, based on accident data recorded in the System of Information on Disease Notification between 2006 and 2016, where three post-exposure and one pre-exposure management scenarios were evaluated: A) accidents among vaccinated workers with positive and negative serological status tests for hepatitis B, exposed to known and unknown source-person; B) handling unvaccinated workers exposed to a known and unknown source-person; C) managing vaccinated workers and unknown serological status for hepatitis B and D) cost of the pre-exposure post-vaccination test. Accidents were assessed and the direct cost was calculated using the decision tree model. Results: scenarios where workers did not have protective titles after vaccination or were unaware of the serological status and were exposed to a positive or unknown source-person for hepatitis B. Conclusion: the direct cost of hepatitis B prophylaxis, including confirmation of serological status after vaccination would be more economical for the health system.

Objetivo: comparar o custo direto, sob a perspectiva do Sistema Único de Saúde, da avaliação do status sorológico pós-vacinação com o manejo pós-exposição para hepatite B entre trabalhadores da área da saúde expostos ao material biológico. Método: estudo transversal e de custo, realizado a partir dos dados de acidentes registrados no Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação entre 2006 e 2016, em que foram avaliados três cenários de manejo pós-exposição e um de pré-exposição: A) acidentes entre trabalhadores vacinados com status sorológico positivo e negativo para hepatite B, expostos à pessoa-fonte conhecida e desconhecida; B) manejo dos trabalhadores não vacinados expostos à pessoa-fonte conhecida e desconhecida; C) manejo dos trabalhadores vacinados e status sorológico desconhecido para hepatite B e D) custo do teste pós vacinação pré-exposição. Os acidentes foram avaliados e o custo direto foi calculado utilizando o modelo árvore de decisão. Resultados: apresentaram maior custo os cenários em que os trabalhadores não possuíam títulos protetores após a vacinação ou desconheciam o status sorológico e foram expostos à pessoa-fonte positivo ou desconhecida para hepatite B. Conclusão: o custo direto da profilaxia para hepatite B, incluindo a confirmação do status sorológico após vacinação seria mais econômico para o sistema de saúde.

Objetivo: comparar el costo directo, desde la perspectiva del Sistema Único de Salud, de la evaluación del status serológico post-vacunación con el manejo post-exposición para la hepatitis B entre los trabajadores de la salud expuestos a material biológico. Método: estudio transversal y de costos, basado en datos de accidentes registrados en el Sistema de Información de Enfermedades Notificables entre 2006 y 2016, en el que se evaluaron tres escenarios de gestión posteriores a la exposición y uno previo a la exposición: A) accidentes entre trabajadores vacunados con status serológico positivo y negativo para hepatitis B, expuestos a una fuente de origen conocida y desconocida; B) manejo de trabajadores no vacunados expuestos a una fuente conocida y desconocida; C) manejo de trabajadores vacunados y estado serológico desconocido para hepatitis B y D) costo de la prueba de pre-exposición post-vacunación. Se evaluaron los accidentes y se calculó el costo directo utilizando el modelo de árbol de decisión. Resultados: los escenarios en los que los trabajadores no tenían títulos de protección después de la vacunación o desconocían el status serológico y estaban expuestos a una persona fuente positiva o desconocida para la hepatitis B reflejaron un costo más alto. Conclusión: el costo directo de la profilaxis para la hepatitis B, incluida la confirmación del status serológico después de la vacunación sería más económico para el sistema de salud.

Impact assessment of the incorporation of the rotavirus vaccine in the province of San Luis - Argentina.

Rotavirus (RV) is the main cause of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in young children. The San Luis province of Argentina introduced RV vaccination in May 2013. We estimate vaccine impact (RVI) using real-world data. Data on all-cause AGE cases and AGE-related hospitalisations for San Luis and the adjacent Mendoza province (control group) were obtained and analysed by interrupted time-series methods. Regardless of the model used for counterfactual predictions, we estimated a reduction in the number of all-cause AGE cases of 20-25% and a reduction in AGE-related hospitalisations of 55-60%. The vaccine impact was similar for each age group considered (<1 year, <2 years and <5 years). RV vaccination was estimated to have reduced direct medical costs in the province by about 4.5 million pesos from May 2013 to December 2014. Similar to previous studies, we found a higher impact of RV vaccination in preventing severe all-cause AGE cases requiring hospitalisation than in preventing all-cases AGE cases presenting for medical care. An assessment of the economic value of RV vaccination could take other benefits into account in addition to the avoided medical costs and the costs of vaccination.