Health and Safety Threats to Ukraine From Nonconventional Weapons: A Clear and Present Danger.

This Viewpoint discusses the potential for use of nonconventional warfare threats (chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and explosives) in the conflict in Ukraine and how health care professionals need to recognize and respond to these threats.

The language of less-lethal weapons.

It has been over 1 year since we observed the policing of the George Floyd protests in the United States [R. R. Hardeman, E. M. Medina, R. W. Boyd, N. Engl. J. Med. 383, 197-199 (2020)]. Multiple injury reports emerged in medical journals, and the scientific community called for law enforcement to discontinue the use of less-lethal weapons [E. A. Kaske et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 384, 774-775 (2021) and K. A. Olson et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 383, 1081-1083 (2020)]. Despite progress in research, policy change has not followed a similar pace. Although the reasoning for this discrepancy is multifactorial, failure to use appropriate language may be one contributing factor to the challenges faced in updating policies and practices. Here, we detail how language has the potential to influence thinking and decision-making, we discuss how the language of less-lethal weapons minimizes harm, and we provide a framework for naming conventions that acknowledges harm.

Beyond the burn: Studies on the physiological effects of flamethrowers during World War II.

Flamethrowers are widely considered one of warfare's most controversial weapons and are capable of inflicting gruesome physical injuries and intense psychological trauma. Despite being the last of the major combatants in World War II (WWII) to develop them, the United States military quickly became the most frequent and adept operator of portable flamethrowers. This gave the U.S. military ample opportunity to observe the effects of flamethrowers on enemy soldiers. However, while most people in modern times would consider immolation by flamethrower to be an unnecessarily painful and inhumane way to inflict casualties, immolation was, at one point during World War II (WWII), referred to as "mercy killing" by the U.S. Chemical Warfare Service (CWS). This mischaracterization arose from a series of first-hand accounts describing what were believed to be quick, painless, and unmarred deaths, as well as from a poor and incomplete understanding of flamethrower lethality. As a result, indirect mechanisms such as hypoxia and carbon monoxide poisoning were generally absent from accounts of the flamethrower's fatal effects. It was not until several years after flamethrowers were introduced to the frontlines that the CWS and National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) conducted a series of tests to better understand the physiological and toxicological effects of flamethrowers. This article examines how the initial absence of scientific data on the physiologic effects of flamethrowers led to an inaccurate understanding of their lethality, and bizarre claims that one of history's most horrific instruments of war was considered one of the more "humane" weapons on the battlefield.

Intra-class and inter-class tool discrimination through micro-CT analysis of false starts on bone.

Micro-CT has successfully been applied to the characterization of false starts (FSs) and, among several parameters, kerf width seems to correlate to the tool blade. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the diagnostic value of micro-CT for the differentiation of saw marks produced by different classes of saws and by saws belonging to the same class and differing only in number of teeth per inches (TPI). A morphological and morphometric analysis of 84 marks, produced by 6 saws belonging to 3 morphological classes, was performed. In the experimental cohort, for each parameter, statistically significant differences in intra- and inter-class analysis were searched for and cut-offs were established. The diagnostic accuracy of cut-offs was assessed through statistical analyses on the validation cohort. The morphological assessment did not allow to differentiate saws differing only in TPI. Angle 1 and top kerf width, respectively for cross-cut and rip-cut saws with alternating set, allowed a good discrimination between FSs produced by tools belonging to the same morphological class. High positive predictive values were found in intra-class analyses, while results in inter-class analyses were less encouraging. In cases of dismemberment, a micro-CT-based analysis of FSs is strongly suggested as a part of a multistep and multimodal methodology of assessment, which includes scanning electron microscopy and stereomicroscopy. A morphological assessment should be followed by an experimental trial and by a morphometric analysis. Further studies are needed to evaluate hampering factors, such as damage by physico-chemical agents.

Fracture energy threshold in parry injuries due to sharp and blunt force.

Blows with axes, machetes or blunt objects such as baseball bats, truncheons, etc. are often parried, resulting in typical parry injuries, or so-called nightstick fractures to the ulna. In this study, we sought to assess the impact energy required to break the ulna in such parry incidents in an experimental setting using semisynthetic and fully synthetic models. Twenty-seven sheep radii and 33 polyurethane synthetic bones were cast into gelatin prior to being fired at with missiles made of a section of an axe blade or steel rod at different firing velocities using a compressed-nitrogen cannon. Each model was then examined as to the presence of hair-line fractures or complete fractures. Sheep bones and synthetic bones displayed comparable results when struck by the axe missile; here, a clear fracture threshold was evident between 14.00 and 15.26 J. When struck by the rod missile, only the synthetic bones produced significant results, namely a fracture threshold between 20.15 and 23.59 J. In conclusion, our results show an ulnar fracture threshold of approximately 15 J when struck by an axe. The experiments regarding blows with a rod displayed a fracture threshold of around 22 J, but, as this could not be validated with biological bones, this result is questionable.

Male and Female Single-Victim Sexual Homicide Offenders: Distinguishing the Types of Weapons Used in Killing Their Victims.

Most studies have focused on male sexual homicide offenders (SHOs) without testing whether sex differences exist. Accordingly, little is known about the distinctions between male and female SHOs, particularly with respect to their use of weapons in killing their victims. This study used a sample of 3,160 single-victim sexual homicide cases (3,009 male and 151 female offenders) from the U.S. Supplementary Homicide Reports database to explore sex differences in the types of murder weapons used by offenders in killing victims over the 37-year period 1976 to 2012. Findings indicated that significantly more male SHOs used personal weapons (43%) and more female SHOs used firearms (63%) in their offense commission. In general, female offenders predominantly used weapons that were physically less demanding (e.g., firearms and edged and other weapons; 89%). Different trends in the murder weapons used by male and female SHOs from different age groups were observed. Interestingly, findings showed that the type of weapon used by SHOs was in part influenced by the victims and their characteristics.

[The modern-day forensic medical aspects of the stab and slash injuries]. / Sovremennye sudebno-meditsinskie aspekty koloto-rezanykh povrezhdenii.

This article presents a review of scientific literature concerning investigations on the peculiar features of the stab and slash injuries. It is shown that the currently available data provide a basis for the elucidation, with great probability, the specific group and narrow-group features characteristic of various types of pricking and piercing objects with which the stab and slash injuries are known to be inflicted. The large variety of such objects (weapons) dictates the necessity to carry out further investigations. One of the problems of special interest is to elucidate peculiar metric and morphological characteristics of the stab and slash injuries caused by the national Uzbek knives ('pichak').

[The modeling of the ricochet shot fired from a light weapon]. / Modelirovanie rikosheta pri vystrele iz strelkovogo oruzhiia.

The objective of the present study was to choose the optimal method for the modeling of the glance of a bullet after hitting a target under conditions of the laboratory experiment. The study required the designing and construction of an original device for the modeling of the rebound effect of a light-firearm shot under experimental conditions. The device was tested under conditions of the laboratory experiment. The trials have demonstrated the possibility of using barriers of different weight and dimensions in the above device, their positioning and fixation depending on the purpose of the experiment, dynamic alteration of its conditions with due regard for the safety and security arrangements to protect the health and life of the experimenters without compromising the statistical significance and scientific validity of the results of the experiments.

[Forensic medical characteristic of the damages to the skin and clothes by plastic knives].

The present study was designed to characterize the group and individual properties of plastic knives with special reference to the classification of the damages inflicted to the human skin and textile fabric by these weapons including multiblade ones. It was shown in experiment that repeated impacts through a barrier (textile fabric) lead to a partial destruction of the blade.

Quantifying Oldowan Stone Tool Production at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania.

Recent research suggests that variation exists among and between Oldowan stone tool assemblages. Oldowan variation might represent differential constraints on raw materials used to produce these stone implements. Alternatively, variation among Oldowan assemblages could represent different methods that Oldowan producing hominins utilized to produce these lithic implements. Identifying differential patterns of stone tool production within the Oldowan has implications for assessing how stone tool technology evolved, how traditions of lithic production might have been culturally transmitted, and for defining the timing and scope of these evolutionary events. At present there is no null model to predict what morphological variation in the Oldowan should look like. Without such a model, quantifying whether Oldowan assemblages vary due to raw material constraints or whether they vary due to differences in production technique is not possible. This research establishes a null model for Oldowan lithic artifact morphological variation. To establish these expectations this research 1) models the expected range of variation through large scale reduction experiments, 2) develops an algorithm to categorize archaeological flakes based on how they are produced, and 3) statistically assesses the methods of production behavior used by Oldowan producing hominins at the site of DK from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania via the experimental model. Results indicate that a subset of quartzite flakes deviate from the null expectations in a manner that demonstrates efficiency in flake manufacture, while some basalt flakes deviate from null expectations in a manner that demonstrates inefficiency in flake manufacture. The simultaneous presence of efficiency in stone tool production for one raw material (quartzite) and inefficiency in stone tool production for another raw material (basalt) suggests that Oldowan producing hominins at DK were able to mediate the economic costs associated with stone tool procurement by utilizing high-cost materials more efficiently than is expected and low-cost materials in an inefficient manner.

[Morphology and phenomenology of crossbow injuries with a review of the literature]. / Zur Morphologie und Phänomenologie von Armbrust-Schussverletzungen--zwei Fallbeispiele mit einer Literaturübersicht.

This paper presents two cases of survived and fatal injuries caused by broad-head arrows. Case no. 1 is characterised by repeated assaults resulting in severe injuries to the legs of the victim. The lesions showed characteristic patterns due to the arrow-heads with four cross-shaped blades. Case no. 2 represented a suicide with the crossbow arrow entering the upper mouth region at close range, penetrating the base of the skull, the pons and the inter-hemispheric space, with the tip of the arrow being lodged in the skullcap. Morphology of the wounds, ballistic features and technical characteristics are discussed and the available literature is reviewed.

Forensic discrimination of three common brands of kitchen knives in China by ICP-AES and infrared absorption.

A block of an injury instrument will be left in wounds sometimes, and the suspect instrument can be discriminated by comparison with the block that was left through elemental analysis. In this study, three brands (Shibazi, Zhangxiaoquan, Qiaoxifu) of kitchen knives with forged, chop, and slice application series were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and Infrared Absorption to investigate the type, number of elements and the reference range used for comparing. The results show that when regarding one or more element as the discriminative threshold, together with 5% relative standard deviation (RSD) as the reference range, all the samples could be distinguished among different series. Furthermore, within the same series, the discriminative capability could reach up to 88.57% for all samples. In addition, elements with high content, such as Cr, Mn, and C, were useful to discriminate among different series, and trace elements, such as Ni, Si, and Cu, were useful within the same series. However, in practice, it is necessary to evaluate the accuracy of the method by Standard Reference Material (SRM) before an examination is performed.

Microscopic analysis of sharp force trauma in bone and cartilage: a validation study.

Sharp force trauma research lacks agreement on reported error rates for correctly identifying toolmark characteristics on bone and cartilage. This study provides error rates for determining blade class (serrated, partially serrated, nonserrated) and type of edge bevel (left, right, even). Three analysts examined cuts to a wax medium, cartilage, and bone using two types of microscopes. Additionally, the observers examined impressions taken from the wax medium and the cartilage. Overall, a total of 504 observations were performed. Serrated blades were distinguishable from nonserrated blades due to their patterned striations. Some difficulties were encountered in distinguishing serrated and partially serrated blades; however, when these groups were considered together as one classification type (serrated), classification accuracy improved from 79% to 96%. Classification accuracy for edge bevel was 65%. Error rates were similar when comparing direct observation of the cut marks versus indirect observation (impressions). Additionally, the type of microscope used did not affect error rates.

[Forensic medical characteristic of sawed injuries inflicted to the long tubular bones by a power jigsaw].

The main aspects of investigations devoted to forensic medical characteristic of sawed injuries inflicted to the long tubular bones by a power jigsaw are considered. The mathematical model has been developed making it possible to determine the frequency of backward and forward movements of the jigsaw blade from the morphological features of the injuries to long tubular bones of man and to estimate the sawing rate for the further identification of the instrument of crime.

Emergency treatment strategy and the biodynamic effects of massive, "chopped off", mandibular tissue and a prolapsed tongue.

Current weaponry possesses unobserved new, biodynamic wounding effects. For many victims, high velocity, large shell fragments have resulted in massive lower jaw "chopped off" hard and soft tissues injuries accompanied by tongue prolapse. The management challenges begin with lifesaving which is possibly complicated by airway compromise, severe hemorrhage, massive lower jaw loss, and a prolapsed tongue. Consequently, the goal shall be "No patient should die from massive facial tissue injuries alone". That is, if feasible, sensible, lifesaving techniques are applied at the appropriate time. Following general condition stabilization, the surgical management steps of massive lower jaw tissue loss should begin with immediate lost tissue reconstruction. Seventeen cases were selected from an unquantified number patients who had massive mandibular tissue losses in which the tongue, surprisingly, remained intact. In these cases, definitive, early scaffolding stabilization was accomplished by joining the remaining two lower jaw intact segments. The successful procedure consists of using a 2 mm horseshoe shaped Kirschner wire bridging the gap of the mandibular arch which effectively is used as a "scaffold" for rebuilding the soft tissue. Proper, initial, surgical management resulted in protecting lacerated tissue, diminishing subsequent morbidity and disfigurement, preventing a prolapsed tongue and preserving the intact tissues physiological functions. As the spectrum of injuries continues to evolve the clinical characterization of the severity of facial wounds need an expanded classification, appropriate to massive facial injuries. It is suggested it has the following descriptors: blast, penetration, perforation, avulsions and "chopping off" (BPPAC).

[Morphological characteristics of stab and slush injuries to the skin inflicted by the ragged-spine knife].

The objective of the present study was to identify morphological features of stab and slush injuries to the skin inflicted with the ragged-spine knife. Visual and stereoscopic examination of experimental skin injuries to the biodummies revealed a number of peculiar characteristics of such wounds. Their severity is shown to depend on such factors as pressure on the spine or the blade.

Sensitive test for sea mine identification based on polarization-aided image processing.

Techniques are widely sought to detect and identify sea mines. This issue is characterized by complicated mine shapes and underwater light propagation dependencies. In a preliminary study we use a preprocessing step for denoising underwater images before applying the algorithm for mine detection. Once a mine is detected, the protocol for identifying it is activated. Among many correlation filters, we have focused our attention on the asymmetric segmented phase-only filter for quantifying the recognition rate because it allows us to significantly increase the number of reference images in the fabrication of this filter. Yet they are not entirely satisfactory in terms of recognition rate and the obtained images revealed to be of low quality. In this report, we propose a way to improve upon this preliminary study by using a single wavelength polarimetric camera in order to denoise the images. This permits us to enhance images and improve depth visibility. We present illustrative results using in situ polarization imaging of a target through a milk-water mixture and demonstrate that our challenging objective of increasing the detection rate and decreasing the false alarm rate has been achieved.