Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Clade 2.3.4.4b Virus in Poultry, Benin, 2021.

In August 2021, we detected highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b viruses in poultry in southern Benin. The isolates were genetically similar to H5N1 viruses of clade 2.3.4.4b isolated during the same period in Africa and Europe. We also found evidence for 2 separate introductions of these viruses into Benin.

Capacity Building Efforts for Rabies Diagnosis in Resource-Limited Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case Report of the Central Veterinary Laboratory in Benin (Parakou).

Rabies has been listed as a priority zoonotic disease in many African countries and the countdown to reach the goal of eliminating dog-mediated human rabies deaths by 2030 means that disease control measures need to be applied fast. In this context, an essential pillar of any national plan to control rabies is the implementation of reliable diagnostic techniques to ensure the success of field surveillance systems. Although many African countries have received international support for the control of rabies-some countries, like Benin, have not received a similar level of support. Indeed, until 2018, Benin was not able to diagnose rabies and rabies diagnosis in animals as well as humans relied solely on observed clinical symptoms. Although the Central Veterinary Laboratory (CVL) of Parakou had the equipment to implement two recommended tests, the lack of specific reagents and skills prevented the implementation of a rabies diagnostic service. Here we present the joint efforts of the national authorities in Benin, intergovernmental agencies, and non-governmental organizations to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the government's rabies control efforts. We have applied the Stepwise Approach toward Rabies Elimination (SARE) analysis, implemented rabies diagnostic capacities at the CVL of Parakou, characterized strains of rabies virus circulating in Benin, and finally integrated an inter-laboratory comparison program.

Inventory of biosecurity measures and antibiotics therapy practices on laying hen farms in Benin.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Laying hen breeding is on the rise in Benin; nevertheless, there are several sanitary constraints to its development, including bacterial diseases. Faced with this situation, breeders mainly resort to different means of treatment. The objective of this study was to assess the current state of hygiene measures, the bacterial diseases commonly encountered, and antibiotic therapy practices on laying hen farms in Benin. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 200 laying hen farms were randomly selected from lists of laying hen farms obtained from veterinary offices, territorial agricultural development agencies, and the Benin National Union of Professional Aviculturists. Each visited farmer was subjected to a semi-structured questionnaire by direct interview. The results were compared using the bilateral Z-test. RESULTS: The results of this survey revealed that 99.5% of the surveyed farms had a health and medical prophylaxis program although only 88.5% of them reported strictly adhering to it (p<0.001). About 25.0% of them reported that the dominant bacterial diseases they commonly encountered on their farms were salmonellosis, colibacillosis, and chronic respiratory disease. Only 7.0% of farmers said that they confirmed their diagnosis outside of clinical signs through laboratory analysis. To control these pathologies, 14.5% of farmers used only oxytetracycline, while 39.0% used other antibiotics such as colistin, enrofloxacin, tylosin, tylodox, flumequine, and norfloxacin. In comparison, 13.5% used a trimethoprim-sulfadimethoxine and sulfadimidine combination, while 32.0% said that they used erythromycin, oxytetracycline, streptomycin, neomycin, and colistin (p<0.001) combination. CONCLUSION: This study highlights the inadequacies of hygiene and antibiotic therapy practices implemented on Benin's laying hen farms.

A serological survey of Toxoplasma gondii infection in sheep and goat from Benin, West-Africa.

Toxoplasma gondii is a parasitic protozoan, the etiological agent of toxoplasmosis, a worldwide zoonosis responsible for abortion and congenital malformation in animal and human. The present study reports, for the first time, the occurrence of T. gondii infection among sheep and goats from Benin. A total of 368 small ruminants: 215 serum samples from sheep raised in Sahelian area of North Benin and 153 serum samples from goats raised in a family farm from South-Benin, were collected and screened for anti-T. gondii IgG antibodies by the ELISA-indirect method. The results show the presence of anti-T. gondii IgG in 53% (83/153) of goats and 1.4% of sheep (3/215). Age, sex and breed did not seem to affect the frequency of this infection. Among goats, T. gondii infection was higher in animals reared in the coastal zone (Cotonou municipality) than those raised on the island (Allada municipality) [odds ratio (OR) = 4, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.07-15.002, p = 0.032, (χ2) test]. Humidity would be the determining factor in the disparity of recorded infection rates among sheep and goat. The high prevalence of caprine toxoplasmosis observed in southern Benin shows strong environmental contamination. Sensitization campaigns should therefore be undertaken by the public health authorities to inform the inhabitants of this area about risks and preventive measures of this zoonose.

Correction to: A serological survey of Toxoplasma gondii infection in sheep and goat from Benin, West-Africa.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1007/s12639-018-01076-1.].

Domestic animals infected with Mycobacterium ulcerans-Implications for transmission to humans.

BACKGROUND: The environmental pathogen, Mycobacterium ulcerans (MU) can infect both humans and animals and cause Buruli ulcer (BU) disease. However, its mode(s) of transmission from the colonized environment to human/animal hosts remain unclear. In Australia, MU can infect both wildlife and domestic mammals. Till date, BU-like lesions have only been reported in wildlife in Africa. This warrants a thorough assessment of possible MU in domestic animals in Africa. Here, we screened roaming domesticated animals that share the human microhabitat in two different BU endemic sites, Sedje-Denou in Benin and Akonolinga in Cameroon, for MU lesions. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We screened roaming mammals and birds across 3 endemic villages of Sedje-Denou in Southern Benin and 6 endemic villages of Akonolinga in Cameroon. After approval from relevant authorities, specimens (wound swabs and tissue fragments) were collected from animals with open or active lesion and systematically screened to detect the presence of MU though the diagnostic DNA targets IS2404, IS2606 and KR-B. Out of 397 animals surveyed in Akonolinga, 44 (11.08%) carried skin lesions and all were negative for MU DNA. For Sedje-Denou, only 25 (6.93%) out of 361 animals surveyed carried external skin lesions of which 2 (8%) were positive for MU DNA targets. These MU infected lesions were found in two different villages on a goat (abdominal part) and on a dog (nape area of the neck). Source-tracking of MU isolates within infected animal lesions was performed using VNTR genotyping and further confirmed with sequencing. One MU VNTR genotype (Z) was successfully typed from the goat lesion. The evolutionary history inferred from sequenced data revealed a clustering of animal MU isolates within isolates from human lesions. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: This study describes the first report of two MU infected lesions in domestic animals in Africa. Their DNA sequence analyses show close relationship to isolates from human cases. It suggests that MU infection should be suspected in domestic hosts and these could play a role in transmission. The findings further support the hypothesis that MU is a ubiquitous environmental pathogen found in endemic areas, and probably involved in a multiple transmission pathway.

Preliminary study on the tick population of Benin wildlife at the moment of its invasion by the Rhipicephalus microplus tick (Canestrini, 1888).

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Rhipicephalus microplus (Rm) is one of the most problematic livestock tick species in the world. Its rapid propagation and resistance to acaricides make it control difficult in the sub-region and Benin particularly. The aim of this work was to check its presence in wildlife and to confirm the possible role of reservoir wildlife may play in the propagation of the parasite. This will help to design more efficient control strategy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study was conducted from February to March 2017 in the National Parks of Benin (Pendjari and W Park) and wildfowl's assembly and selling point in Benin. Ticks were manually picked with forceps from each animal after slaughtering by hunters then stored in 70° ethanol. Collected ticks were counted and identified in the laboratory using the identification key as described by Walker. RESULTS: Overall, seven species of ticks (Amblyomma variegatum, Boophilus decoloratus, Rm, Boophilus spp., Hyalomma spp., Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Rhipicephalus spp.) were identified on nine wild animal species sampled (Cane rat, wildcat, Hare, Doe, Cricetoma, Buffalo, Buffon Cobe, and Bushbuck and Warthog). The average number of ticks varies from 3 to 6 between animal species, 3 to 7 between localities visited, and 2 to 5 between tick species. However, these differences are statistically significant only for localities. Considering tick species and animal species, the parasite load of Rm and Rhipicephalus spp. is higher; the buffalo being more infested. The analysis of deviance reveals that the abundance of ticks observed depends only on the observed localities (p>0.05). However, the interactions between animal species and localities on the one hand and between animal and tick species on the other hand, although not significant, have influenced the abundance of ticks as they reduce the residual deviance after their inclusion in the model. CONCLUSIONS: This study reported the presence of Rm in wildlife of Benin and confirmed its role in the maintenance and spread of the parasites. It is, therefore, an important risk factor that we must not neglect in the epidemiological surveillance and ticks control strategies in the West African sub-region and particularly in Benin.

Sensitivity of Different Cattle Breeds to the Infestation of Cattle Ticks Amblyomma variegatum, Rhipicephalus microplus, and Hyalomma spp. on the Natural Pastures of Opkara Farm, Benin.

A study was carried out on the Opkara (Benin) cattle farm on 64 cattle of four different breeds (16 individuals per breed) from June to December 2016. During this study, three tick species were found in different numbers, Amblyomma variegatum (732), Rhipicephalus microplus (8079), and Hyalomma spp. (208), with parasitic intensity of 11.90, 126.23, and 3.25, respectively. The interracial comparison of the tick infestation between the cattle showed a significant difference (P < 0.001). However, Girolando was more infested than all the cattle breeds. Infestation of A. variegatum, R. microplus, and Hyalomma spp. on the Girolando was, respectively, 19.43 ± 2.71, 171.25 ± 23.50, and 7.12 ± 0.63, but the Borgou were less infested. Borgou breed females were more infested by A. variegatum (4.41 ± 1.14) than females Girolando (4.20 ± 0.90). The Crossbred and Azawak females were less infested (P < 0.01). The mean of A. variegatum on Borgou, Azawak, Crossbred, and Girolando calves was 1.29 ± 0.35, 0.66 ± 0.26, 1.37 ± 0.37, and 2.25 ± 0.48 (P < 0.01), respectively. The results of this study can be exploited to include genetic and nongenetic approaches to tick control.

Evidence of multiple mechanisms of alphacypermethrin and deltamethrin resistance in ticks Rhipicephalus microplus in Benin, West Africa.

Ticks are obligate haematophagous arthropods, causing heavy losses in affected livestock. The objective of this study is to investigate phenotypic and genotypic resistance in Rhipicephalus microplus populations from Benin. Engorged female adult ticks were collected from cattle in two districts of Benin. Bioassays, biochemical and molecular tests were carried out on these ticks to determine the phenotypic, enzymatic and genetic status of resistance. Results of bioassays showed high resistance factors (RF > 41). The molecular tests showing the presence of the domain II mutation and absence of the domain III mutation in the voltage-gated sodium channel gene. Biochemical tests showed increased activity of esterases, multifunction oxidases and glutathione transferases in resistant samples. Genotyping the samples showed high levels of heterozygous genotypes (73.36% and 63.30%) as compared to homozygous susceptible and resistant genotypes (23.3% and 10%) respective at Samiondji and Betecoucou. A correlation between phenotype resistance and presence of the domain II mutation at the voltage gated sodium channel gene was observed suggesting that this could be associated with resistance. Target site mutation and metabolic detoxification are mechanisms of resistance to pyrethroids in R. microplus tick populations from Benin.

Toxoplasma gondii infection in meat animals from Africa: Systematic review and meta-analysis of sero-epidemiological studies.

AIM: Toxoplasma gondii is an ubiquitous apicomplexan parasite which causes toxoplasmosis in humans and animals. Felids especially cats are definitive hosts and almost all warm-blooded mammals, including livestock and human can serve as intermediate hosts. Food animals can be reservoirs for T. gondii and act as one of the sources for parasite transmission to humans. The objective of this study is to collect serological data on the prevalence of anti-T. gondii antibody, and risk factors for certain food animals from Africa to provide a quantitative estimate of T. gondii infection among these species from different African countries. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Four databases were used to search seroepidemiological data on the prevalence of anti-T. gondii antibody in food animals between 1969 and 2016 from African countries. The search focused on data obtained by serologic test in food animals and meta-analyses were performed per species. RESULTS: A total of 30,742 individual samples from 24 countries, described in 68 articles were studied. The overall estimated prevalence for toxoplasmosis in chicken, camel, cattle, sheep, goat, pig were 37.4% (29.2-46.0%), 36% (18-56%), 12% (8-17%), 26.1% (17.0-37.0%), 22.9% (12.3-36.0%), and 26.0% (20-32.0%), respectively. Moreover, major risk factor of infection was age, farming system, and farm location. CONCLUSIONS: A significant variation in the seroepidemiological data was observed within each species and country. The results can aid in an updated epidemiological analysis but also can be used as an important input in quantitative microbial risk assessment models. Further studies are required for a better and continual evaluation of the occurrence of this zoonotic infection.