Understanding the spatial distribution and hot spots of collared Bornean elephants in a multi-use landscape.

In the Kinabatangan floodplain, Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, oil palm and settlements have reduced and fragmented lowland tropical forests, home to around 200 endangered Bornean elephants (Elephas maximus borneensis). In this region, elephants range within forests, oil palm and community areas. The degree to which elephants are using these areas remains unclear. We used GPS telemetry data from 2010 to 2020 for 14 collared elephants to map their entire known ranges and highly used areas (hot spots) across four land use categories and estimate time spent within these. The use of land use types across elephants varied significantly. Typically, females had strong fidelity to forests, yet many of these forests are threatened with conversion. For the three males, and several females, they heavily used oil palm estates, and this may be due to decreased landscape permeability or foraging opportunities. At the pooled level, the entire range and hot spot extents, constituted 37% and 34% for protected areas, respectively, 8% and 11% for unprotected forests, 53% and 51% for oil palm estates, and 2% for community areas. Protecting all forested habitats and effectively managing areas outside of protected areas is necessary for the long-term survival of this population.

Riverine effects on mitochondrial structure of Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) at two spatial scales.

We examined mitochondrial DNA control region sequences of 73 Kinabatangan orangutans to test the hypothesis that the phylogeographical structure of the Bornean orangutan is influenced by riverine barriers. The Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary contains one of the most northern populations of orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) on Borneo and is bisected by the Kinabatangan River, the longest river in Sabah. Orang-utan samples on either side of the river were strongly differentiated with a high Phi(ST) value of 0.404 (P < 0.001). Results also suggest an east-west gradient of genetic diversity and evidence for population expansion along the river, possibly reflecting a postglacial colonization of the Kinabatangan floodplain. We compared our data with previously published sequences of Bornean orangutans in the context of river catchment structure on the island and evaluated the general relevance of rivers as barriers to gene flow in this long-lived, solitary arboreal ape.

Philopatry and reproductive success in Bornean orang-utans (Pongo pygmaeus).

Behavioural observations suggest that orang-utans are semi-solitary animals with females being philopatric and males roaming more widely in search of receptive partners, leading to the prediction that females are more closely related than males at any given site. In contrast, our study presents evidence for male and female philopatry in the orang-utan. We examined patterns of relatedness and parentage in a wild orang-utan population in Borneo using noninvasively collected DNA samples from animals observed to defecate, and microsatellite markers to assess dispersal and mating strategies. Surprisingly, resident females were equally as related to other resident females (mean r(xy) = 0.303) as resident males were to other resident males (mean r(xy) = 0.305). Moreover, resident females were more related to each other and to the resident males than they were to nonresident females, and resident males were more related to each other (and resident females) than they were to nonresident males. We assigned genetic mothers to 12 individuals in the population, while sires could be identified for eight. Both flanged males and unflanged males achieved paternity, similar to findings reported for Sumatran orang-utans.

Patterns of genetic diversity and migration in increasingly fragmented and declining orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus) populations from Sabah, Malaysia.

We investigated the genetic structure within and among Bornean orang-utans (Pongo pygmaeus) in forest fragments of the Lower Kinabatangan flood plain in Sabah, Malaysia. DNA was extracted from hair and faecal samples for 200 wild individuals collected during boat surveys on the Kinabatangan River. Fourteen microsatellite loci were used to characterize patterns of genetic diversity. We found that genetic diversity was high in the set of samples (mean H(E) = 0.74) and that genetic differentiation was significant between the samples (average F(ST) = 0.04, P < 0.001) with F(ST) values ranging from low (0.01) to moderately large (0.12) values. Pairwise F(ST) values were significantly higher across the Kinabatangan River than between samples from the same river side, thereby confirming the role of the river as a natural barrier to gene flow. The correlation between genetic and geographical distance was tested by means of a series of Mantel tests based on different measures of geographical distance. We used a Bayesian method to estimate immigration rates. The results indicate that migration is unlikely across the river but cannot be completely ruled out because of the limited F(ST) values. Assignment tests confirm the overall picture that gene flow is limited across the river. We found that migration between samples from the same side of the river had a high probability indicating that orang-utans used to move relatively freely between neighbouring areas. This strongly suggests that there is a need to maintain migration between isolated forest fragments. This could be done by restoring forest corridors alongside the river banks and between patches.

Protein deficiency in a colony of western lowland gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla)

A syndrome of alopecia and weight loss in a colony of 10 western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in Gabon during a 3-yr period was apparently due to a dietary protein deficiency, with nine individuals affected to some extent. The most severely afflicted was a 4-yr-old female who eventually died as a result of acute gastroenteritis caused by Shigella flexneri. Clinical signs included chronic alopecia, hair discoloration, failure to thrive, and weight loss, and their severity was directly correlated with the degree of hypoalbuminemia (12 g/L in the most extreme case) and normocytic normochromic anemia. Preliminary clinical tests and autopsy results suggested a dietary protein or amino acid deficiency as the cause of the hypoalbuminemia, and further analyses of serum amino acid and protein levels were consistent with a diagnosis of dietary protein deficiency. Supplementation of the colony diet with a protein preparation for humans produced a rapid amelioration of signs and improvement in body and coat condition, a normalization of serum albumin and total protein levels, and disappearance of the anemia in all affected animals except a 12-yr-old male, who responded well to treatment with anabolic steroids. The natural diet of western lowland gorillas is surprisingly high in protein, and the dietary protein requirement of captive gorillas may be increased as a result of the absence of commensal gastrointestinal ciliates.

Antibody response to Newcastle disease vaccination in a flock of young houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata).

Twelve young houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata) were vaccinated with a lentogenic strain of Newcastle disease virus. Another seven birds were kept in close contact with the treated flock but were not vaccinated. Antibody levels were measured in all birds with hemagglutination inhibition test over the course of 1 yr. Antibody formation with no side effects was observed in 18 birds. The duration and amplitude of the antibody response differed between the groups.

Temporal variations of LH and testosterone in arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) from birth to adulthood.

To determine the onset of puberty in Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), a longitudinal study was conducted in 5 captive males at the National Wildlife Research Centre, Taif (Saudi Arabia). From birth to 20 months of age, twice weekly, animals were weighed and blood was assayed for LH and testosterone. Four periods were defined by analysis of the hormonal profile. During the first 5 months (corresponding to prepuberty), mean LH concentrations increased significantly while testosterone remained basal. Testosterone increased significantly during the second period (from 6 to 7 months) while LH decreased significantly. The testosterone pattern suggests that the animals reached puberty at around 7 months old. Mean LH concentrations remained at a similar level before and after puberty and increased significantly between the 12th and 13th months of life. This increment correspond to the transition between two further periods. The third period (8-12 months) was characterized by testosterone peaks of 2.4 +/- 0.1 ng ml-1 which irregularly occurred over a period of 26.6 +/- 2.7 days and was followed by a fourth period, during which peaks were seen at 24.1 +/- 1.6-day intervals and reached 4.7 +/- 0.2 ng ml-1. This last period probably corresponds to the mature stage of puberty. The testosterone cyclicity in oryx, coinciding with the estrous cycle length of the female, would permit the male to be fertile throughout the year and could be an adaptive response to the opportunistic and aseasonal reproductive cycle of the female.

Length of estrous cycle and gestation in the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) and the importance of the male presence for induction of postpartum estrus.

The reproduction of the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) has been studied in a breeding center in Taif (Saudi Arabia). In the first experiment, three groups of females were assigned to groups immediately after calving. In group 1, from the day of calving the females had visual and olfactory but not physical contact with a male. The calves were removed on the day of birth and each female was placed with a male on Day 45. In group 2, females and their calves were placed individually with a male the day after calving. In group 3, females and their calves were kept with neither visual nor olfactory contact with a male and then placed with a male on Day 90. The estrous cycle was deduced from assays of plasma progesterone up to Day 120 after calving. All females exhibited a postpartum estrus a few days after parturition but the occurrence of the estrus was significantly delayed in females of group 3. The length of the estrous cycle was 23.7 +/- 1.3 days and the gestation length was 255.2 +/- 1.5 days. In the second experiment, a group of adult females was formed in 1987 and the intervals between calving recorded over a period of 5 years. The mean interval between calving was 285 +/- 2 days (n = 99 gestations). However, 66.6% of these intervals averaged 276 days whereas 19.2% had averaged 294 and 13% averaged 321 days.

Debilitating cutaneous poxvirus lesions on two captive houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata).

Poxvirus was isolated from cutaneous nodules on two young Houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata) bred in captivity in Saudi Arabia. Birds were emaciated and presented nodules on tibiotarso-tarsometatarsal joints, toes, and the carpal joint. Diagnosis was confirmed by histopathology, virus isolation on inoculated chorioallantoic membranes of embryonated chicken's eggs, and electron microscopy. Progressive leg lesions were extensive and interfered with walking, significantly debilitating the birds. Successful excisions of these lesions were performed.

Concurrent avian pox and Newcastle disease infection in a Houbara bustard (Chlamydotts undulatd).

A case of acute respiratory disease was observed on a 3-month-old Houbara bustard (Chlamydotis undulatd) at the National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC) breeding unit. Newcastle disease (ND) and avian pox viruses were isolated from the lungs, spleen and trachea of the affected bird. A heavy secondary bacterial infection was also noticed. The clinical and pathological findings observed in this case are described. It is the first description of the isolation of ND virus from a Houbara bustard. The epidemiology of the disease in the breeding flock is discussed.

Chemical immobilisation of red-necked ostriches (Struthio camelus) under field conditions.

Sixteen red-necked ostriches (Struthio camelus camelus) were darted under field conditions to immobilise them. Combinations of etorphine hydrochloride with either medetomidine or ketamine were used on 13 birds; xylazine hydrochloride and metomidate alone were used, respectively, on one and two birds. The times to recumbency and recovery were recorded and compared. The principal complications encountered during the anaesthetic procedure were myopathy due to over exertion and respiratory collapse. Etorphine combined with medetomidine led to a sedated state of good quality but short duration, which allowed minor procedures to be carried out.

Use of atipamezole to reverse xylazine tranquilization in captive Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx).

Twenty-seven hand-reared male Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), with a mean (+/- SD) weight of 86.9 (+/- 16.9) kg, were darted in the muscle with xylazine at a mean (+/- SD) dosage rate of 0.5 (+/- 0.07) mg kg. This dosage was sufficient to induce recumbency in 24 animals in a mean (+/- SD) time of 9.4 (+/- 5.6) min. Three animals never became recumbent at this dosage but were mildly sedated and still could be handled. Atipamezole was used as antagonist agent in a mean (+/- SD) time of 32.1 (+/- 9.6) min after the initial injection of xylazine. Two thirds of the total amount of atipamezole was given intravenously while one third was injected subcutaneously at a mean (+/- SD) total dosage of 0.087 (+/- 0.014) mg/kg. The mean (+/- SD) reversal time (time to stand up after the injection of atipamezole) was 87.1 (+/- 43.2) sec for the 24 recumbent oryx. A resedation period (lowering of the ears and the head, unsteady gait and sometimes recumbency), lasting up to two hours, occurred between two and five hours after the injection of atipamezole in 21 animals.

Field observations of aye-ayes (Daubentonia madagascariensis) in Madagascar.

Data are presented from a field study of aye-ayes (Daubentonia madagascariensis) in an area of degraded secondary forest in northeast Madagascar. Animals were followed by radiotelemetry for 3 months during the cool dry season, when productivity of the forest is at a minimum. Population density was variable. Male home ranges were larger and overlapped the range of at least 1 female. Male ranges also overlapped, and areas of overlap could be occupied by 2 animals simultaneously. Most of the parties were solitary, but aggregations were observed at feeding sites. All activity was observed during darkness, and aye-ayes were always found to nest singly during the daytime. These patterns conform to those described for other nocturnal solitary prosimians. The aye-ayes showed versatility in their locomotor patterns, enabling them to use all types of supports and forest levels. Dietary diversity was high, although a preference for flower nectar was noted. These results suggest that, despite their anatomical specializations, aye-ayes are able to exploit a wide range of resources within recently degraded forest. This ability seems to allow aye-ayes to remain active throughout the year, unlike certain other nocturnal lemurs which become torpid during the dry season.

Tubal ligation in the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) as a means of contraception.

Contraception of two chimpanzees was considered necessary for clinical reasons. After failure of reversible methods of contraception (an intrauterine device and a long-acting progestagen), tubal ligation was successfully performed, using a technique similar to one used in women.