Social predictors of food insecurity during the stay-at-home order due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru. Results from a cross-sectional web-based survey.

BACKGROUND: Stay-at-home orders and social distancing have been implemented as the primary tools to reduce the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). However, this approach has indirectly lead to the unemployment of 2·3 million Peruvians, in Lima, Perú alone. As a result, the risk of food insecurity may have increased, especially in low-income families who rely on a daily wage. This study estimates the prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity (MSFI) and identifies the associated factors that explain this outcome during the stay-at-home order. METHODS: A cross-sectional web-based survey, with non-probabilistic sampling, was conducted between May 18 and June 30, 2020, during the stay-at-home order in Peru. We used social media advertisements on Facebook to reach 18-59-year-olds living in Peru. MSFI was assessed using the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES). Rasch model methodology requirements were considered, and factors associated with MSFI were selected using stepwise forward selection. A Poisson generalized linear model (Poisson GLM), with log link function, was employed to estimate adjusted prevalence ratios (aPR). FINDINGS: This analysis is based on 1846 replies. The prevalence of MSFI was 23·2%, and FIES proved to be an acceptable instrument with reliability 0·72 and infit 0·8-1·3. People more likely to experience MSFI were those with low income (less than 255 US$/month) in the pre-pandemic period (aPR 3·77; 95%CI, 1·98-7·16), those whose income was significantly reduced during the pandemic period (aPR 2·27; 95%CI, 1·55-3·31), and those whose savings ran out in less than 21 days (aPR 1·86; 95%CI, 1·43-2·42). Likewise, heads of households (aPR 1·20; 95%CI, 1·00-1·44) and those with probable SARS-CoV2 cases as relatives (aPR 1·29; 95%CI, 1·05-1·58) were at an increased risk of MSFI. Additionally, those who perceived losing weight during the pandemic (aPR 1·21; 95%CI, 1·01-1·45), and increases in processed foods prices (aPR 1·31; 95%CI, 1·08-1·59), and eating less minimally processed food (aPR 1·82; 95%CI, 1·48-2·24) were more likely to experience MSFI. INTERPRETATION: People most at risk of MSFI were those in a critical economic situation before and during the pandemic. Social protection policies should be reinforced to prevent or mitigate these adverse effects.

Depressive symptoms among Peruvian adult residents amidst a National Lockdown during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: Population health and well-being in Latin America, the current epicenter of the COVID-19 pandemic, has been severely affected during the past semester. Despite the growing evidence about the link between the pandemic, its control measures, and mental health worldwide, there is still no regional evidence of the potential mental health impact. We describe the prevalence and distribution of depressive symptoms across demographic and socioeconomic risk factors in the Peruvian population amidst a national lockdown during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: Cross-sectional study conducted during the community transmission phase and national lockdown in Peru (May 4th-16th, 2020). We recorded 64,493 responses from adult Peruvian residents through an opt-in online questionnaire. All analyses were weighted using raking based on proportions of sociodemographic variables from the last Peruvian census in 2017. The prevalence of depressive symptoms was calculated using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) score of 10 or more. We identified associated demographic and socioeconomic factors by prior mental health diagnosis. Sensitivity analysis considered an alternative cut-off point for depressive symptoms of PHQ-9 ≥ 14. RESULTS: A total of 57,446 participants were included in the analytical sample. A third of the participants (n = 23,526, unweighted) showed depressive symptoms in the 2 weeks prior to the study. Participants who reported a previous mental health diagnosis doubled the sample prevalence of depressive symptoms (59, 95%CI 56.7, 61.4%) of those without a prior diagnosis. Psychosocial and functioning reactions were largely more prevalent among females and young adults. A dose-response relationship was found between household income and depressive symptoms across previous mental health diagnosis strata, being as low as 32% less in the wealthiest than the most impoverished group (PR: 0.68, 95%CI 0.58,0.79). Other critical factors associated with a higher burden of depressive symptoms were lower education level, single, unemployed, and chronic comorbidity. CONCLUSIONS: An increased burden of depressive symptoms and psychosocial reactions has emerged during the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru compared to previous years. The mental health burden disproportionately affects women, the younger population, and those with low income and education. As the country eases the social distancing measures, it is crucial to use local evidence to adjust public health policies and mental health services to the renewed population needs.

Emerging mental health challenges, strategies, and opportunities in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic: Perspectives from South American decision-makers

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To identify emerging mental health problems, strategies to address them, and opportunities to reform mental health systems during the COVID-19 pandemic in South America. Methods. An online questionnaire was sent to mental health decision-makers of ministries of health in 10 South American countries in mid-April 2020. The semi-structured questionnaire had 12 questions clustered into three main sections: emerging challenges in mental health, current and potential strategies to face the pandemic, and key elements for mental health reform. We identified keywords and themes for each section through summative content analysis. Results. Increasing mental health burden and needs were reported as direct and indirect consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic. National lockdowns challenge the delivery and access to mental health treatment and care. Strategies to meet mental health needs rely heavily on timely and adequate responses by strengthened mental health governance and systems, availability of services, virtual platforms, and appropriate capacity- building for service providers. Short- and medium-term strategies focused on bolstering community-based mental health networks and telemedicine for high-risk populations. Opportunities for long-term mental health reform entail strengthening legal frameworks, redistribution of financial resources, and collaboration with local and international partners. Conclusions. Mental health and psychosocial support have been identified as a priority area by South American countries in the COVID-19 response. The pandemic has generated specific needs that require appropriate actions, including implementing virtual interventions, orienting capacity-building toward protecting users and health providers, strengthening evidence-driven decision-making, and integrating mental health and psychosocial support in high-level mechanisms guiding the response to COVID-19.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Determinar los problemas de salud mental emergentes, las estrategias para abordarlos y las oportunidades para reformar los sistemas de salud durante la pandemia de COVID-19 en América del Sur. Métodos. A mediados de abril del 2020, se envió un cuestionario en línea a los encargados de tomar decisiones en materia de salud mental en los Ministerios de Salud de diez países de América del Sur. El cuestionario semiestructurado consistía en doce preguntas agrupadas en tres secciones principales: desafíos emergentes en materia de salud mental, estrategias actuales y posibles para enfrentar la pandemia, y elementos clave para la reforma de la salud mental. Establecimos palabras clave y temas para cada sección mediante el análisis del contenido sumativo. Resultados. Se informó un aumento de la carga y las necesidades en materia de salud mental como consecuencia directa e indirecta de la pandemia de COVID-19. Los confinamientos a nivel nacional representan un desafío en la prestación y el acceso al tratamiento y la atención de la salud mental. Las estrategias para satisfacer las necesidades de salud mental dependen en gran medida de las respuestas oportunas y adecuadas, que requieren el fortalecimiento de la gobernanza y de los sistemas en el ámbito de la salud mental, la disponibilidad de servicios y plataformas virtuales, y la formación de capacidad apropiada para los prestadores de servicios. Las estrategias a corto y mediano plazo se centran en reforzar las redes comunitarias de salud mental y la telemedicina para los grupos poblacionales de alto riesgo. Las oportunidades para la reforma de la salud mental a largo plazo entrañan fortalecer los marcos jurídicos, la redistribución de los recursos financieros y la colaboración con los asociados a nivel nacional e internacional. Conclusiones. En los países de América del Sur, se ha determinado que la salud mental y el apoyo psicosocial son un área prioritaria en la respuesta a la COVID-19. La pandemia ha generado necesidades específicas que requieren medidas apropiadas, como las intervenciones virtuales, la orientación de la formación de capacidad hacia la protección de los usuarios y prestadores de servicios de salud, el fortalecimiento de la toma de decisiones basadas en la evidencia, y la integración de la salud mental y el apoyo psicosocial en los mecanismos de alto nivel que guían la respuesta a la COVID-19.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Identificar problemas emergentes de saúde mental, as estratégias para enfrentá-los e oportunidades para reformar os sistemas de saúde mental durante a pandemia de COVID-19 na América do Sul. Métodos. Em meados de abril de 2020, enviamos um questionário online aos responsáveis pela tomada de decisões em saúde mental dos ministérios da saúde de 10 países da América do Sul. O questionário semiestruturado continha 12 perguntas agrupadas em três seções principais: desafios emergentes em saúde mental, estratégias atuais e potenciais para enfrentar a pandemia e elementos-chave para a reforma da saúde mental. Identificamos palavras-chave e temas para cada seção através da análise de conteúdo sumativa. Resultados. O aumento das necessidades e da carga sobre os serviços de saúde mental foram descritos como consequências diretas e indiretas da pandemia de COVID-19. As medidas de confinamento implementadas pelos governos nacionais dificultam o acesso e a prestação de cuidados e tratamentos de saúde mental. As estratégias para atender às necessidades de saúde mental dependem de respostas rápidas e adequadas através do fortalecimento da governança e dos sistemas de saúde mental, da disponibilidade de serviços, de plataformas virtuais e da capacitação apropriada dos prestadores de serviços. As estratégias de curto e médio prazo se concentraram no reforço das redes comunitárias de saúde mental e da telemedicina para as populações de alto risco. As oportunidades de reforma da saúde mental a longo prazo implicam o fortalecimento dos quadros jurídicos, a redistribuição de recursos financeiros e a colaboração com parceiros locais e internacionais. Conclusões. A saúde mental e o apoio psicossocial foram identificados como uma área prioritária pelos países da América do Sul na resposta à COVID-19. A pandemia criou necessidades específicas que exigem ações apropriadas, incluindo a implementação de intervenções virtuais, a capacitação orientada à proteção dos usuários e prestadores da atenção à saúde, o fortalecimento da tomada de decisões baseada em evidências e a integração da saúde mental e do apoio psicossocial em mecanismos de alto nível que orientem a resposta à COVID-19.

[Spatial analysis of gestational anemia in Peru, 2015]. / Análisis espacial de la anemia gestacional en el Perú, 2015.

OBJECTIVES: To establish regional prevalences of anemia in pregnant women receiving care at public clinics in Peru in 2015 and identify high-prevalence district conglomerates. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An ecological study was carried out on data from pregnant women with anemia registered on the Nutritional Status Information System (SIEN) who received care in 7703 public clinics in 2015. Regional and district prevalences of gestational anemia were calculated. District conglomerates with a high prevalence of gestational anemia were identified using the Moran Index. RESULTS: Information was gathered from 311,521 pregnant women distributed in 1638 districts in Peru. The national prevalence of anemia was 24.2% (95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 24.0-24.3%), the rural prevalence was 30.5%, and the urban prevalence was 22.0%. The regions of Huancavelica (45.5%; 95% CI: 44.2-46.7%), Puno (42.8%; 95% CI: 41.9-43.7%), Pasco (38.5%; 95% CI: 36.9-40.0%), Cusco (36.0%; 95% CI: 35.3-36.8%), and Apurímac (32.0%; 95% CI: 30.8-33.1%) had the highest prevalences of anemia. The local Moran Index identified 202 high-priority districts (hot spots) (12.3% of total; 44 urban and 158 rural) located in Ancash, Apurímac, Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cajamarca, Cusco, Huancavelica, Huánuco, Junín, La Libertad, Lima, Pasco, and Puno containing high-prevalence district conglomerates. CONCLUSIONS: Gestational anemia in Peru has its highest prevalence rates in rural and southern mountainous areas. The district conglomerates with high prevalence rates of gestational anemia coincide with the areas of high regional prevalence.

Análisis espacial de la anemia gestacional en el Perú, 2015 / Spatial analysis of gestational anemia in Peru, 2015

RESUMEN Objetivos Establecer las prevalencias regionales e identificar conglomerados distritales con altas prevalencias deanemia en gestantes atendidas en los establecimientos de salud públicos del Perú en el 2015. Materiales y métodos Se realizó un estudio ecológico de datos de gestantes con anemia, registrados en el Sistema de Información del Estado Nutricional (SIEN), que fueron atendidas en 7703 establecimientos públicos de salud durante el 2015. Se calcularon prevalencias de anemia gestacional regionales y distritales. Mediante el índice de Moran se identificaron conglomerados distritales con alta prevalencia de anemia gestacional. Resultados Se recolectó información de 311 521 gestantes, distribuidas en 1638 distritos del Perú. La prevalencia nacional de anemia fue de 24,2% (IC 95%: 24,0-24,3) y 30,5% en el área rural vs. 22,0% en el área urbana. Las regiones de Huancavelica (45,5%; IC 95%: 44,2-46,7), Puno (42,8%; IC 95%: 41,9-43,7), Pasco (38,5%; IC 95%: 36,9-40,0), Cusco (36,0%; IC 95%: 35,3-36,8) y Apurímac (32,0%; IC 95%: 30,8-33,1) tuvieron las mayores prevalencias de anemia. El índice local de Moran identificó 202 distritos (12,3%) (44 urbanos y 158 rurales) de alta prioridad (alto-alto o hot spots) situados en Ancash, Apurímac, Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cajamarca, Cusco, Huancavelica, Huánuco, Junín, La Libertad, Lima, Pasco y Puno, que muestran conglomerados distritales con altas prevalencias. Conclusiones La anemia gestacional en Perú concentra sus mayores prevalencias en las áreas rural y sur de la sierra. Los conglomerados distritales con altas prevalencias de anemia gestacional coinciden con las zonas de alta prevalencia regional.

ABSTRACT Objectives To establish regional prevalences of anemia in pregnant women receiving care at public clinics in Peru in 2015 and identify high-prevalence district conglomerates. Materials and Methods An ecological study was carried out on data from pregnant women with anemia registered on the Nutritional Status Information System (SIEN) who received care in 7703 public clinics in 2015. Regional and district prevalences of gestational anemia were calculated. District conglomerates with a high prevalence of gestational anemia were identified using the Moran Index. Results Information was gathered from 311,521 pregnant women distributed in 1638 districts in Peru. The national prevalence of anemia was 24.2% (95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 24.0-24.3%), the rural prevalence was 30.5%, and the urban prevalence was 22.0%. The regions of Huancavelica (45.5%; 95% CI: 44.2-46.7%), Puno (42.8%; 95% CI: 41.9-43.7%), Pasco (38.5%; 95% CI: 36.9-40.0%), Cusco (36.0%; 95% CI: 35.3-36.8%), and Apurímac (32.0%; 95% CI: 30.8-33.1%) had the highest prevalences of anemia. The local Moran Index identified 202 high-priority districts (hot spots) (12.3% of total; 44 urban and 158 rural) located in Ancash, Apurímac, Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cajamarca, Cusco, Huancavelica, Huánuco, Junín, La Libertad, Lima, Pasco, and Puno containing high-prevalence district conglomerates. Conclusions Gestational anemia in Peru has its highest prevalence rates in rural and southern mountainous areas. The district conglomerates with high prevalence rates of gestational anemia coincide with the areas of high regional prevalence.

Patient acceptability of and readiness-to-pay for pharmacy-based health membership plans to improve hypertension outcomes in Lima, Peru.

INTRODUCTION: Pharmacies have been used to improve population health in Peru and other countries globally, operating as a non-traditional health access point. A pharmacy-based model holds potential to improve patient management of hypertension, a leading risk factor for non-communicable diseases in low- and middle-income countries. The aim of this study was to evaluate patient acceptability of hypertension services and health membership plans, if offered through private pharmacies in the future. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 347 hypertensive individuals who purchased anti-hypertensive medications in a private pharmacy during the study period (July-October 2012). The study included a brief survey assessing patients' acceptability of and readiness-to-pay for pharmacy-based hypertension management services. Chi-square tests for differences in proportions were used to evaluate whether any demographic characteristics (e.g., binary variables for age, time since diagnosis, and type of medication usually purchased) could identify groups of hypertensive individuals that might be more or less likely to use pharmacy-based services. Multiple logistic regression was used to estimate associations between readiness-to-pay for pharmacy-based health membership plans and patient-level characteristics. RESULTS: Over 80% of individuals indicated they would be interested in pharmacy-based hypertension services, particularly discounts on anti-hypertensive medications and free blood pressure screenings. Compared to individuals 65 years of age or older, individuals under 65 years were more interested in receiving at least one pharmacy-based service. Another 80% indicated they would be interested in purchasing a monthly health plan through a pharmacy that provided access to hypertension services each month. The vast majority of individuals interested in pharmacy-based services indicated they would pay ≤$3.69 US/month to participate in a monthly health membership plan. CONCLUSIONS: Hypertensive patients would be interested in using and ready to pay for pharmacy-based hypertension services.

[Spatial analysis of childhood obesity and overweight in Peru, 2014]. / Análisis espacial del sobrepeso y la obesidad infantil en el Perú, 2014.

OBJECTIVES.: To estimate regional prevalence and identify the spatial patterns of the degree of overweight and obesity by districts in under five years children in Peru during 2014. MATERIALS AND METHODS.: Analysis of the information reported by the Information System Nutritional Status (SIEN) of the number of cases of overweight and obesity in children under five years recorded during 2014. Regional prevalence for overweight and obesity, and their respective confidence intervals to 95% were calculated. Moran index was used to determine patterns of grouping districts with high prevalence of overweight and/or obesity. RESULTS.: Data from 1834 districts and 2,318,980 children under five years were analyzed. 158,738 cases (6.84%; CI 95%: 6.81 to 6.87) were overweight, while 56,125 (2.42%; CI 95%: 2.40 to 2.44) obesity. The highest prevalence of overweight were identified in the regions of Tacna (13.9%), Moquegua (11.8%), Callao (10.4%), Lima (10.2%) and Ica (9.3%), and in the same regions for obesity with 5.3%; 4.3%; 4.0%; 4.0% and 3.8% respectively. The spatial analysis found grouping districts of high prevalence in 10% of all districts for both overweight and obesity, identifying 199 districts for overweight (126 urban and 73 rural), and 184 for obesity (136 urban and 48 rural). CONCLUSIONS.: The highest prevalence of overweight and obesity were identified in the Peruvian coast regions. Moreover, these regions are predominantly exhibited a spatial clustering of districts with high prevalence of overweight and obesity.

Análisis espacial del sobrepeso y la obesidad infantil en el Perú, 2014 / Spatial analysis of childhood obesity and overweight in Peru, 2014

RESUMEN Objetivos. Estimar las prevalencias regionales e identificar los patrones espaciales del grado de sobrepeso y obesidad por distritos, en menores de cinco años en el Perú durante el año 2014. Materiales y métodos. Análisis de la información reportada por el Sistema de Información del Estado Nutricional (SIEN) del número de casos de sobrepeso y obesidad en menores de cinco años registrados durante el año 2014. Se calcularon prevalencias regionales para sobrepeso y obesidad y sus respectivos intervalos de confianza al 95%. El índice de Moran fue utilizado para determinar los patrones de agrupación de distritos con altas prevalencia de sobrepeso y/o obesidad. Resultados. Se analizaron datos de 1834 distritos y 2 318 980 menores de cinco años, 158 738 casos (6,84%; IC 95%: 6,81-6,87) presentaron sobrepeso, mientras que 56 125 (2,42%; IC 95%: 2,40-2,44) obesidad. Las mayores prevalencias de sobrepeso fueron identificadas en las regiones de Tacna (13,9%), Moquegua (11,8%), Callao (10,4%), Lima (10,2%) e Ica (9,3%), y en las mismas regiones para obesidad con 5,3%; 4,3%; 4,0%; 4,0% y 3,8% respectivamente. El análisis espacial encontró agrupaciones distritales de altas prevalencias en un 10% del total de distritos tanto para sobrepeso y obesidad, identificándose 199 distritos para sobrepeso (126 urbanos y 73 rurales), y 184 para obesidad (136 urbanos y 48 rurales). Conclusiones. Se identificó las mayores prevalencias de sobrepeso y obesidad en regiones de la costa peruana. Asimismo, estas regiones son las que exhibieron predominantemente una agrupación espacial de distritos con altas prevalencias de sobrepeso y obesidad.

ABSTRACT Objectives. To estimate regional prevalence and identify the spatial patterns of the degree of overweight and obesity by districts in under five years children in Peru during 2014. Materials and methods. Analysis of the information reported by the Information System Nutritional Status (SIEN) of the number of cases of overweight and obesity in children under five years recorded during 2014. Regional prevalence for overweight and obesity, and their respective confidence intervals to 95% were calculated. Moran index was used to determine patterns of grouping districts with high prevalence of overweight and/or obesity. Results. Data from 1834 districts and 2,318,980 children under five years were analyzed. 158,738 cases (6.84%; CI 95%: 6.81 to 6.87) were overweight, while 56,125 (2.42%; CI 95%: 2.40 to 2.44) obesity. The highest prevalence of overweight were identified in the regions of Tacna (13.9%), Moquegua (11.8%), Callao (10.4%), Lima (10.2%) and Ica (9.3%), and in the same regions for obesity with 5.3%; 4.3%; 4.0%; 4.0% and 3.8% respectively. The spatial analysis found grouping districts of high prevalence in 10% of all districts for both overweight and obesity, identifying 199 districts for overweight (126 urban and 73 rural), and 184 for obesity (136 urban and 48 rural). Conclusions. The highest prevalence of overweight and obesity were identified in the Peruvian coast regions. Moreover, these regions are predominantly exhibited a spatial clustering of districts with high prevalence of overweight and obesity.

Length of urban residence and obesity among within-country rural-to-urban Andean migrants.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between length of residence in an urban area and obesity among Peruvian rural-to-urban migrants. DESIGN: Cross-sectional database analysis of the migrant group from the PERU MIGRANT Study (2007). Exposure was length of urban residence, analysed as both a continuous (10-year units) and a categorical variable. Four skinfold site measurements (biceps, triceps, subscapular and suprailiac) were used to calculate body fat percentage and obesity (body fat percentage >25% males, >33% females). We used Poisson generalized linear models to estimate adjusted prevalence ratios and 95 % confidence intervals. Multicollinearity between age and length of urban residence was assessed using conditional numbers and correlation tests. SETTING: A peri-urban shantytown in the south of Lima, Peru. SUBJECTS: Rural-to-urban migrants (n 526) living in Lima. RESULTS: Multivariable analyses showed that for each 10-year unit increase in residence in an urban area, rural-to-urban migrants had, on average, a 12 % (95 % CI 6, 18 %) higher prevalence of obesity. This association was also present when length of urban residence was analysed in categories. Sensitivity analyses, conducted with non-migrant groups, showed no evidence of an association between 10-year age units and obesity in rural (P=0·159) or urban populations (P=0·078). High correlation and a large conditional number between age and length of urban residence were found, suggesting a strong collinearity between both variables. CONCLUSIONS: Longer lengths of urban residence are related to increased obesity in rural-to-urban migrant populations; therefore, interventions to prevent obesity in urban areas may benefit from targeting migrant groups.

[Health and nutrition of indigenous and nonindigenous children in the Peruvian Amazon]. / Situación de salud y nutrición de niños indígenas y niños no indígenas de la Amazonia peruana.

PURPOSE: Evaluate the nutritional status of indigenous and nonindigenous children under 5 in two provinces in the Peruvian Amazon. METHODS: . Descriptive cross-sectional representative study of families with children under 5 in the provinces of Bagua and Condorcanqui in Peru. The study consisted of an interview with the child's or children's mother or caregiver, anthropometric assessment, capillary hemoglobin measurement, screening for intestinal parasites in children under 5, access to health services, history of acute respiratory infections and acute diarrheal diseases, socioeconomic status, and intake of inadequately iodized salt. Using generalized linear methods, the determinants of chronic malnutrition and anemia in children were identified in each study population. RESULTS: . A total of 986 families and 1 372 children were assessed. The prevalence of chronic malnutrition was higher in the indigenous population than in the nonindigenous population (56.2% versus 21.9%); likewise for anemia (51.3% versus 40.9%). The determinants of chronic malnutrition in the two populations differed. In the indigenous population, the main determinants were an age of more than 36 months (OR 2.21; CI95% 1.61-3.04) and substandard housing (OR 2.9; CI95% 1.19-7.11), while in the non-indigenous population, they were extreme poverty (OR 2.31; IC95% 1.50-3.55) and institutional birth (OR 3.1; IC95% 2.00-4.83). CONCLUSIONS: There are marked gaps between the indigenous population and the nonindigenous population in terms of living conditions, access to health services, and the nutritional status of children under 5. Particular attention should be paid to the indigenous population to improve the way state programs and services are delivered in these contexts.

Situación de salud y nutrición de niños indígenas y niños no indígenas de la Amazonia peruana / Health and nutrition of indigenous and nonindigenous children in the Peruvian Amazon

OBJETIVO: Evaluar el estado nutricional de los menores de 5 años, indígenas y no indígenas, de dos provincias de la Amazonia peruana. MÉTODOS: Estudio descriptivo y transversal representativo de familias con niños menores de cinco años residentes en las provincias de Bagua y Condorcanqui en Perú. El estudio incluyó entrevista a la madre o cuidador del(os) niño(s), evaluación antropométrica, hemoglobina en sangre capilar, búsqueda de parásitos intestinales en los niños menores de 5 años, acceso a los servicios de salud, antecedentes de infecciones respiratorias agudas y enfermedades diarreicas agudas, condición socioeconómica y consumo de sal inadecuadamente yodada. Mediante métodos lineares generalizados se identificaron los determinantes de la desnutrición crónica y anemia infantil en cada población de estudio. RESULTADOS: Se evaluaron 986 familias y 1 372 niños. La prevalencia de desnutrición crónica fue mayor en la población indígena respecto de la no indígena (56,2% versus 21,9%), igual que la anemia (51,3% versus 40,9%). Los determinantes de la desnutrición crónica fueron diferentes en ambas poblaciones. En indígenas, prevaleció la edad mayor a 36 meses (OR 2,21; IC95% 1,61-3, 04) y vivienda inadecuada (OR 2,9; IC95% 1,19-7,11), mientras que en los no indígenas, la pobreza extrema (OR 2,31; IC95% 1,50 - 3,55) y el parto institucional (OR 3,1; IC95% 2,00-4,83). CONCLUSIONES: Existen marcadas brechas entre la población indígena y la población no indígena respecto de las condiciones de vida, acceso a servicios de salud y estado nutricional de menores de 5 años. Se requiere asignar particular atención a la población indígena a fin de adecuar las modalidades de entrega de los programas y servicios que ofrece el Estado en dichos contextos.

PURPOSE: Evaluate the nutritional status of indigenous and nonindigenous children under 5 in two provinces in the Peruvian Amazon. METHODS:. Descriptive cross-sectional representative study of families with children under 5 in the provinces of Bagua and Condorcanqui in Peru. The study consisted of an interview with the child's or children's mother or caregiver, anthropometric assessment, capillary hemoglobin measurement, screening for intestinal parasites in children under 5, access to health services, history of acute respiratory infections and acute diarrheal diseases, socioeconomic status, and intake of inadequately iodized salt. Using generalized linear methods, the determinants of chronic malnutrition and anemia in children were identified in each study population. RESULTS:. A total of 986 families and 1 372 children were assessed. The prevalence of chronic malnutrition was higher in the indigenous population than in the nonindigenous population (56.2% versus 21.9%); likewise for anemia (51.3% versus 40.9%). The determinants of chronic malnutrition in the two populations differed. In the indigenous population, the main determinants were an age of more than 36 months (OR 2.21; CI95% 1.61-3.04) and substandard housing (OR 2.9; CI95% 1.19-7.11), while in the non-indigenous population, they were extreme poverty (OR 2.31; IC95% 1.50-3.55) and institutional birth (OR 3.1; IC95% 2.00-4.83). CONCLUSIONS: There are marked gaps between the indigenous population and the nonindigenous population in terms of living conditions, access to health services, and the nutritional status of children under 5. Particular attention should be paid to the indigenous population to improve the way state programs and services are delivered in these contexts.

Situación de salud y nutrición de niños indígenas y niños no indígenas de la Amazonia peruana / Health and nutrition of indigenous and nonindigenous children in the Peruvian Amazon

Objetivo. Evaluar el estado nutricional de los menores de 5 años, indígenas y no indígenas, de dos provincias de la Amazonia peruana. Métodos. Estudio descriptivo y transversal representativo de familias con niños menores de cinco años residentes en las provincias de Bagua y Condorcanqui en Perú. El estudio incluyó entrevista a la madre o cuidador del(os) niño(s), evaluación antropométrica, hemoglobina en sangre capilar, búsqueda de parásitos intestinales en los niños menores de 5 años, acceso a los servicios de salud, antecedentes de infecciones respiratorias agudas y enfermedades diarreicas agudas, condición socioeconómica y consumo de sal inadecuadamente yodada. Mediante méto¬dos lineares generalizados se identificaron los determinantes de la desnutrición crónica y anemia infantil en cada población de estudio. Resultados. Se evaluaron 986 familias y 1 372 niños. La prevalencia de desnutrición crónica fue mayor en la población indígena respecto de la no indígena (56,2% versus 21,9%), igual que la anemia (51,3% versus 40,9%). Los determinantes de la desnutrición crónica fueron diferentes en ambas poblaciones. En indígenas, prevaleció la edad mayor a 36 meses (OR 2,21; IC95% 1,61-3, 04) y vivienda inadecuada (OR 2,9; IC95% 1,19-7,11), mientras que en los no indígenas, la po¬breza extrema (OR 2,31; IC95% 1,50 - 3,55) y el parto institucional (OR 3,1; IC95% 2,00-4,83). Conclusiones. Existen marcadas brechas entre la población indígena y la población no indí¬gena respecto de las condiciones de vida, acceso a servicios de salud y estado nutricional de meno¬res de 5 años. Se requiere asignar particular atención a la población indígena a fin de adecuar las modalidades de entrega de los programas y servicios que ofrece el Estado en dichos contextos.

Purpose. Evaluate the nutritional status of indigenous and nonindigenous children under 5 in two provinces in the Peruvian Amazon. Methods. Descriptive cross-sectional representative study of families with children under 5 in the provinces of Bagua and Condorcanqui in Peru. The study consisted of an interview with the child’s or children’s mother or caregiver, anthropometric assess¬ment, capillary hemoglobin measurement, screening for intestinal parasites in chil¬dren under 5, access to health services, history of acute respiratory infections and acute diarrheal diseases, socioeconomic status, and intake of inadequately iodized salt. Using generalized linear methods, the determinants of chronic malnutrition and anemia in children were identified in each study population. Results. A total of 986 families and 1 372 children were assessed. The prevalence of chronic malnutrition was higher in the indigenous population than in the nonindige¬nous population (56.2% versus 21.9%); likewise for anemia (51.3% versus 40.9%). The determinants of chronic malnutrition in the two populations differed. In the indige¬nous population, the main determinants were an age of more than 36 months (OR 2.21; CI95% 1.61–3.04) and substandard housing (OR 2.9; CI95% 1.19–7.11), while in the non-indigenous population, they were extreme poverty (OR 2.31; IC95% 1.50–3.55) and institutional birth (OR 3.1; IC95% 2.00–4.83). Conclusions. There are marked gaps between the indigenous population and the nonindigenous population in terms of living conditions, access to health services, and the nutritional status of children under 5. Particular attention should be paid to the indigenous population to improve the way state programs and services are delivered in these contexts.

Obesity Prevention in Latin America.

In Latin American countries, obesity prevalence has increased significantly as a result of rapid urbanization and an improvement in socioeconomic conditions. We report the prevalence of overweight and/or obesity and prevention efforts in five countries: Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, Peru, and Chile. In children, the highest and lowest rates of obesity are found in Chile (23 % in 6-year-olds) and Peru (1.8 % in those <5 years), respectively. In adults, Mexico and Chile present similar high rates of obesity (around 35 %), whereas in Brazil and Colombia, the rates are around 20 % and 16.5 %, respectively. In general, the highest prevalence occurs in low-income women. Every country has developed initiatives to target obesity, from the government to the private sector and academia, mainly at the health sector and school settings. Food labeling is being addressed, but has not been implemented yet. Two interventions are described, a community-based in Mexico and a school-based in Chile. Because the increase in chronic diseases, especially diabetes, has paralleled that of obesity, effective prevention efforts are urgently needed.