Direct transport vs secondary transfer to level I trauma centers in a French exclusive trauma system: Impact on mortality and determinants of triage on road-traffic victims.

BACKGROUND: Transporting a severely injured patient directly to a trauma center (TC) is consensually considered optimal. Nevertheless, disagreement persists regarding the association between secondary transfer status and outcome. The aim of the study was to compare adjusted mortality between road traffic trauma patients directly or secondarily transported to a level 1 trauma center (TC) in an exclusive French trauma system with a physician staffed prehospital emergency medical system (EMS). METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was performed using 2015-2017 data from a regional trauma registry (Traumabase®), an administrative database on road-traffic accidents and prehospital-EMS records. Multivariate logistic regression models were computed to determine the role of the modality of admission on mortality and to identify factors associated with secondary transfer. The primary outcome was day-30 mortality. Results: During the study period, 121.955 victims of road-traffic accident were recorded among which 4412 trauma patients were admitted in the level 1 regional TCs, 4031 directly and 381 secondarily transferred from lower levels facilities. No significant association between all-cause 30-day mortality and the type of transport was observed (Odds ratio 0.80, 95% confidence interval (CI) [0.3-1.9]) when adjusted for potential confounders. Patients secondarily transferred were older, with low-energy mechanism and presented higher head and abdominal injury scores. Among all 947 death, 43 (4.5%) occurred in lower-level facilities. The population-based undertriage leading to death was 0.15%, 95%CI [0.12-0.19]. CONCLUSION: In an exclusive trauma system with physician staffed prehospital care, road-traffic victims secondarily transferred to a TC do not have an increased mortality when compared to directly transported patients.

Association of Prehospital Time to In-Hospital Trauma Mortality in a Physician-Staffed Emergency Medicine System.

Importance: The association between total prehospital time and mortality in physician-staffed trauma systems remains uncertain. Objective: To describe the association of total prehospital time and in-hospital mortality in prehospital, physician-staffed trauma systems in France, with the hypothesis that total prehospital time is associated with increased mortality. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study was conducted from January 2009 to December 2016. Data for this study were derived from 2 distinct regional trauma registries in France (1 urban and 1 rural) that both have a physician-staffed emergency medical service. Consecutive adult trauma patients admitted to either of the regional trauma referral centers during the study period were included. Data analysis took place from March 2018 to September 2018. Main Outcomes and Measures: The association between death and prehospital time was assessed with a multivariable model adjusted with confounders. Total prehospital time was the primary exposure variable, recorded as the time from the arrival of the physician-led prehospital care team on scene to the arrival at the hospital. The main outcome of interest was all-cause in-hospital mortality. Results: A total of 10 216 patients were included (mean [SD] age, 41 [18] years; 7937 men [78.3%]) affected by predominantly nonpenetrating injuries (9265 [91.5%]), with a mean (SD) Injury Severity Score of 17 (14) points. Of the patients, 6737 (66.5%) had at least 1 body region with an Abbreviated Injury Scale score of 3 or more. A total of 1259 patients (12.4%) presented in shock (with systolic pressure <90 mm Hg) and 2724 (26.9%) with severe head injury (Abbreviated Injury Scale score ≥3 points). On unadjusted analysis, increasing prehospital times (in 30-minute categories) were associated with a markedly and constant increase in the risk of in-hospital death. The odds of death increased by 9% for each 10-minute increase in prehospital time (odds ratio, 1.09 [95% CI, 1.07-1.11]) and after adjustment by 4% (odds ratio, 1.04 [95% CI, 1.01-1.07]). Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, an increase in total prehospital time was associated with increasing in-hospital all-cause mortality in trauma patients at a physician-staffed emergency medical system, after adjustment for case complexity. Prehospital time is a management objective in analogy to physiological targets. These findings plead for a further streamlining of prehospital trauma care and the need to define the optimal intervention-to-time ratio.

Effect of Bag-Mask Ventilation vs Endotracheal Intubation During Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation on Neurological Outcome After Out-of-Hospital Cardiorespiratory Arrest: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Bag-mask ventilation (BMV) is a less complex technique than endotracheal intubation (ETI) for airway management during the advanced cardiac life support phase of cardiopulmonary resuscitation of patients with out-of-hospital cardiorespiratory arrest. It has been reported as superior in terms of survival. Objectives: To assess noninferiority of BMV vs ETI for advanced airway management with regard to survival with favorable neurological function at day 28. Design, Settings, and Participants: Multicenter randomized clinical trial comparing BMV with ETI in 2043 patients with out-of-hospital cardiorespiratory arrest in France and Belgium. Enrollment occurred from March 9, 2015, to January 2, 2017, and follow-up ended January 26, 2017. Intervention: Participants were randomized to initial airway management with BMV (n = 1020) or ETI (n = 1023). Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was favorable neurological outcome at 28 days defined as cerebral performance category 1 or 2. A noninferiority margin of 1% was chosen. Secondary end points included rate of survival to hospital admission, rate of survival at day 28, rate of return of spontaneous circulation, and ETI and BMV difficulty or failure. Results: Among 2043 patients who were randomized (mean age, 64.7 years; 665 women [32%]), 2040 (99.8%) completed the trial. In the intention-to-treat population, favorable functional survival at day 28 was 44 of 1018 patients (4.3%) in the BMV group and 43 of 1022 patients (4.2%) in the ETI group (difference, 0.11% [1-sided 97.5% CI, -1.64% to infinity]; P for noninferiority = .11). Survival to hospital admission (294/1018 [28.9%] in the BMV group vs 333/1022 [32.6%] in the ETI group; difference, -3.7% [95% CI, -7.7% to 0.3%]) and global survival at day 28 (55/1018 [5.4%] in the BMV group vs 54/1022 [5.3%] in the ETI group; difference, 0.1% [95% CI, -1.8% to 2.1%]) were not significantly different. Complications included difficult airway management (186/1027 [18.1%] in the BMV group vs 134/996 [13.4%] in the ETI group; difference, 4.7% [95% CI, 1.5% to 7.9%]; P = .004), failure (69/1028 [6.7%] in the BMV group vs 21/996 [2.1%] in the ETI group; difference, 4.6% [95% CI, 2.8% to 6.4%]; P < .001), and regurgitation of gastric content (156/1027 [15.2%] in the BMV group vs 75/999 [7.5%] in the ETI group; difference, 7.7% [95% CI, 4.9% to 10.4%]; P < .001). Conclusions and Relevance: Among patients with out-of-hospital cardiorespiratory arrest, the use of BMV compared with ETI failed to demonstrate noninferiority or inferiority for survival with favorable 28-day neurological function, an inconclusive result. A determination of equivalence or superiority between these techniques requires further research. Trial Registration: clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT02327026.

Tracheal intubation related complications in the prehospital setting.

BACKGROUND: Prehospital tracheal intubation (TI) is associated with morbidity and mortality, particularly in cases of difficult intubation. The goal of the present study was to describe factors associated with TI related complications in the prehospital setting. METHODS: This was a prospective cohort study including all patients intubated on scene in a prehospital emergency medical service over a 4 year period. TI related complications included oxygen desaturation, aspiration, vomiting, bronchospasm and/or laryngospasm, and mechanical complications (mainstem intubation, oesophageal intubation and airway lesion- that is, dental or laryngeal trauma caused by the laryngoscope). Difficult intubation was defined as >2 failed laryngoscopic attempts, or the need for any alternative TI method. A multivariate logistic regression was used to identify the risk factors for TI related complications. RESULTS: 1251 patients were included; 208 complications occurred in 165 patients (13.1%). Among the 208 complications, the most frequent were oesophageal intubation (n=69, 29.7%), desaturation (n=58, 25.0%) and mainstem intubation (n=37, 15.9%). In multivariate analysis, difficult intubation (OR=6.13, 3.93 to 9.54), Cormack and Lehane grades 3 and 4 (OR=2.23, 1.26 to 3.96 for Cormack and Lehane grade 3 and OR=2.61, 1.28 to 5.33 for Cormack and Lehane grade 4 compared with Cormack and Lehane grade 1) and a body mass index >30 kg/m(2) (OR=2.22, 1.38 to 3.56) were significantly associated with TI related complications. CONCLUSIONS: Despite specific guidelines, TI related complications are more frequent in the prehospital setting when intubation is deemed difficult, the Cormack and Lehane grade is greater than grade 1 and the patient is overweight. In such situations, particular attention is needed to avoid complications.

Factors associated with difficult intubation in prehospital emergency medicine.

OBJECTIVES: When managing airways in a prehospital setting, emergency physicians have to deal with difficult intubation (DI), which increases morbidity and mortality. The primary goal of this study was to determine predictors of DI in the out-of-hospital field faced by the French physician-staffed Emergency Medical Service. METHODS: The study was a prospective, observational study, including all consecutive patients intubated during a 30-month period. Patients having experienced standard intubation (two attempts or less) or DI (more than two attempts) were compared. RESULTS: Six hundred and ninety-four patients were included: 70 (11%) were classified as DI and 583 as standard intubations. Logistic regression showed that airways obstruction [odds ratio (OR), 4.1; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.71-14.4], intubation on the floor (OR, 2.6; 95% CI, 1.04-6.6), and a hyoid-mental distance less than three fingers (OR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.2-4.7) were independent predictors of DI. Immediate complications occurred in 89 patients (16%): 66 (11%) in the standard intubation group and 23 (31%) in the DI group (P<0.01). CONCLUSION: For prehospital orotracheal intubation, independent risk factors of DI are a mental-thyroid distance less than three fingers, a patient on the floor, and a superior airways obstruction. Anticipation of DI could result in fewer attempts, and fewer complications, as the rate of complication increases with the difficulty of intubation.

Out-of-hospital tracheal intubation with single-use versus reusable metal laryngoscope blades: a multicenter randomized controlled trial.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Emergency tracheal intubation is reported to be more difficult with single-use plastic than with reusable metal laryngoscope blades in both inhospital and out-of-hospital settings. Single-use metal blades have been developed but have not been compared with conventional metal blades. This controlled trial compares the efficacy and safety of single-use metal blades with reusable metal blades in out-of-hospital emergency tracheal intubation. METHODS: This randomized controlled trial was carried out in France with out-of-hospital emergency medical units (Services de Médecine d'Urgence et de Réanimation). This was a multicenter prospective noninferiority randomized controlled trial in adult out-of-hospital patients requiring emergency tracheal intubation. Patients were randomly assigned to either single-use or reusable metal laryngoscope blades and intubated by a senior physician or a nurse anesthetist. The primary outcome was first-pass intubation success. Secondary outcomes were incidence of difficult intubation, need for alternate airway devices, and early intubation-related complications (esophageal intubation, mainstem intubation, vomiting, pulmonary aspiration, dental trauma, bronchospasm or laryngospasm, ventricular tachycardia, arterial desaturation, hypotension, or cardiac arrest). RESULTS: The study included 817 patients, including 409 intubated with single-use blades and 408 with a reusable blade. First-pass intubation success was similar in both groups: 292 (71.4%) for single-use blades, 290 (71.1%) for reusable blades. The 95% confidence interval (CI) for the difference in treatments (0.3%; 95% CI -5.9% to 6.5%) did not include the prespecified inferiority margin of -7%. There was no difference in rate of difficult intubation (difference 3%; 95% CI -7% to 2%), need for alternate airway (difference 4%; 95% CI -8% to 1%), or early complication rate (difference 3%; 95% CI -3% to 8%). CONCLUSION: First-pass out-of-hospital tracheal intubation success with single-use metal laryngoscopy blades was noninferior to first-pass success with reusable metal laryngoscope blades.

Fetal monitoring in the prehospital setting.

BACKGROUND: Prehospital emergency care providers have very little information regarding fetal perfusion adequacy in the field. OBJECTIVE: This study was conducted to evaluate the feasibility of the use of fetal monitoring in the prehospital setting. METHODS: A mobile cardiotocometer was used for all consecutive pregnant women managed by our physician-staffed Emergency Medical Services unit. The visualization of interpretable tracings (both fetal heart rate and tocography) at the different stages of prehospital management was evaluated. Any change in a patient's management was also recorded. RESULTS: There were 145 patients enrolled during 119 inter-hospital transfers and 26 primary prehospital interventions. Interpretable tracings were obtained for 81% of the patients during the initial examination. This rate decreased to 66% during handling and transfer procedures. For 17 patients (12%), the monitoring led to a change in the patient's management. CONCLUSION: This study shows that cardiotocography can be easily performed in the prehospital setting, and is usually feasible. Moreover, the study demonstrates a positive impact of fetal heart rate monitoring on prehospital management.

Compliance with a morphine protocol and effect on pain relief in out-of-hospital patients.

This study was carried out to evaluate the compliance with a morphine protocol and its effects on pain relief in pre-hospital care. In this prospective study, pain intensity was evaluated by the Visual Analog Scale (VAS) from the beginning and every 5 min until hospital arrival (Tend). Group 1: No major deviation from the protocol (intravenous morphine as a first bolus of 0.05 mg/kg followed by repeated boluses every 5 min until VAS < or = 30 mm). Group 2: Major deviation from the protocol. There were 216 patients included. The mean dose of morphine was 9.0 +/- 5.7 mg. The morphine protocol was respected in 123 patients (57%). The mean VAS score was significantly better at Tend in Group 1 vs. Group 2 (27.8 +/- 21.1 mm vs. 37.8 +/- 22.1 mm, respectively), the degree of pain relief was significantly better (73% vs. 53%, respectively) and the initiation time for pain relief was significantly shorter in Group 1 vs. Group 2 (10 min [5-15] vs. 15 min [10-26], respectively). Satisfaction was significantly better in patients expressing pain relief than in unrelieved patients (94% vs. 61%, respectively). Out-of-hospital pain management using morphine depends on careful attention to dosage and the time interval between re-injections. Emergency teams may employ these data to improve the quality of pain relief in the field.

Correlation of arterial PCO2 and PETCO2 in prehospital controlled ventilation.

INTRODUCTION: This study was carried out to estimate the relationship between arterial PCO2 (PaCO2) and end-tidal carbon dioxide (PETCO2) during prehospital controlled ventilation and also to evaluate variation of the gradient between PCO2 and PETCO2 during prehospital transport. METHODS: Measurements of PETCO2 from capnography values and PaCO2 from arterial blood gases were registered at the beginning (T(0)) and at the end (T(end)) of out-of-hospital management. For all patients requiring invasive ventilation, the gradient between PCO2 and PETCO2 was calculated for T(0) and T(end), the PaCO2-PETCO2 variation between T(end) and T(0) was also calculated. RESULTS: One hundred patients were included in this study (mean age, 58.4 +/- 16.4 years; 57 were male). There was no variation of the mean gradient (DeltaPaCO2-PETCO2 ) during transport (8.64 +/- 13.5 mm Hg at T(0) and 7.26 +/- 12.94 mm Hg at T(end)). Thirty-six percent of patients (n = 36) had a gradient above +10 mm Hg, and for 6% of patients (n = 4) the gradient was lower than -10 mm Hg. The PaCO2-PETCO2 gradient was not significantly different according to the pathology, but was significantly higher in hypercapnic patients compared with hypocapnic or normocapnic patients. In patients with severe head injury, the capnia was normalized in 80% of patients at the end of the transport according to the last blood gas result. In this subgroup the DeltaPaCO2-PETCO2 (T(end) - T(0)) gradient was stable between T(0) and T(end) except in 20% of the patients for whom the DeltaPaCO2-PETCO2 was lower than -10 mm Hg. Fifty-four percent of critical care physicians had modified the respiratory setting after the first arterial blood gas results. CONCLUSIONS: The PaCO2 cannot be estimated by the PETCO2 in the prehospital setting. There is wide variation in the gradient between PCO2 and PETCO2 depending on patient condition, and over time, the relationship does not remain constant and thus cannot be useful in prehospital ventilation management.