Economy- and Social-Based Strategies for Anticoagulation of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation. / Estratégias Econômicas e Sociais para Anticoagulação de Pacientes com Fibrilação Atrial.

BACKGROUND: Atrial fibrillation is a public health problem associated with a fivefold increased risk of stroke or death. Analyzing costs is important when introducing new therapies and must be reconsidered in special situations, such as the novel coronavirus pandemic of 2020. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate the costs related to anticoagulant therapy in a one-year period, and the quality of life of atrial fibrillation patients treated in a public university hospital. METHODS: Patient costs were those related to the anticoagulation and calculated by the average monthly costs of warfarin or direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs). Patient non-medical costs (eg., food and transportation) were calculated from data obtained by questionnaires. The Brazilian SF-6D was used to measure the quality of life. P-values < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. RESULTS: The study population consisted of 90 patients, 45 in each arm (warfarin vs direct oral anticoagulants). Costs were 20% higher in the DOAC group ($55,532.62 vs $46,385.88), and mainly related to drug price ($23,497.16 vs $1,903.27). Hospital costs were higher in the warfarin group ($31,088.41 vs $24,604.74) and related to outpatient visits. Additionally, non-medical costs were almost twice higher in the warfarin group ($13,394.20 vs $7,430.72). Equivalence of price between the two drugs could be achieved by a 39% reduction in the price of DOACs. There were no significant group differences regarding quality of life. CONCLUSIONS: Total costs were higher in the group of patients taking DOACs than those taking warfarin. However, a nearly 40% reduction in the price of DOACs could make it feasible to incorporate these drugs into the Brazilian public health system.

FUNDAMENTO: A fibrilação atrial é um problema de saúde pública associado com um risco cinco vezes maior de acidente vascular cerebral e mortalidade. A análise de custos é importante para a introdução de novas terapias, e deve ser reconsiderada em situações especiais, tais como a pandemia do coronavírus em 2020. OBJETIVO: Avaliar os custos (em um período de um ano) relacionados à terapia anticoagulante e a qualidade de vida de pacientes com fibrilação atrial tratados em um hospital público universitário. MÉTODOS: Os custos do paciente foram aqueles relacionados à anticoagulação e calculados pela média de custos mensais da varfarina ou de anticoagulantes orais diretos (DOACs). As despesas não médicas, como alimentação e transporte, foram calculadas a partir de dados obtidos de questionários. O questionário brasileiro SF-6D foi usado para medir a qualidade de vida. Valores p<0,05 foram considerados estatisticamente significativos. RESULTADOS: A população do estudo consistiu em 90 pacientes, 45 em cada braço (varfarina vs. DOACs). Os custos foram 20% mais altos no grupo dos DOACs (US$55 532,62 vs. US$46 385,88), e principalmente relacionados ao preço dos medicamentos (US$23 497,16 vs. US$1903,27). Os custos hospitalares foram mais altos no grupo da varfarina (US$31 088,41 vs $24 604,74), e relacionados às visitas ao ambulatório. Ainda, as despesas não médicas foram duas vezes maiores no grupo varfarina ($13 394,20 vs $7 430,72). A equivalência de preço entre os dois medicamentos seria alcançada por uma redução de 39% no preço dos DOACs. Não foram observadas diferenças quanto à qualidade de vida. CONCLUSÕES: Os custos totais foram mais altos no grupo de pacientes tratados com DOACs que no grupo da varfarina. No entanto, uma redução de cerca de 40% no preço dos DOACs tornaria viável a incorporação desses medicamentos no sistema de saúde público brasileiro.

Estratégias Econômicas e Sociais para Anticoagulação de Pacientes com Fibrilação Atrial / Economy- and Social-Based Strategies for Anticoagulation of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation

Resumo Fundamento: A fibrilação atrial é um problema de saúde pública associado com um risco cinco vezes maior de acidente vascular cerebral e mortalidade. A análise de custos é importante para a introdução de novas terapias, e deve ser reconsiderada em situações especiais, tais como a pandemia do coronavírus em 2020. Objetivo: Avaliar os custos (em um período de um ano) relacionados à terapia anticoagulante e a qualidade de vida de pacientes com fibrilação atrial tratados em um hospital público universitário. Métodos: Os custos do paciente foram aqueles relacionados à anticoagulação e calculados pela média de custos mensais da varfarina ou de anticoagulantes orais diretos (DOACs). As despesas não médicas, como alimentação e transporte, foram calculadas a partir de dados obtidos de questionários. O questionário brasileiro SF-6D foi usado para medir a qualidade de vida. Valores p<0,05 foram considerados estatisticamente significativos. Resultados: A população do estudo consistiu em 90 pacientes, 45 em cada braço (varfarina vs. DOACs). Os custos foram 20% mais altos no grupo dos DOACs (US$55 532,62 vs. US$46 385,88), e principalmente relacionados ao preço dos medicamentos (US$23 497,16 vs. US$1903,27). Os custos hospitalares foram mais altos no grupo da varfarina (US$31 088,41 vs $24 604,74), e relacionados às visitas ao ambulatório. Ainda, as despesas não médicas foram duas vezes maiores no grupo varfarina ($13 394,20 vs $7 430,72). A equivalência de preço entre os dois medicamentos seria alcançada por uma redução de 39% no preço dos DOACs. Não foram observadas diferenças quanto à qualidade de vida. Conclusões: Os custos totais foram mais altos no grupo de pacientes tratados com DOACs que no grupo da varfarina. No entanto, uma redução de cerca de 40% no preço dos DOACs tornaria viável a incorporação desses medicamentos no sistema de saúde público brasileiro.

Abstract Background: Atrial fibrillation is a public health problem associated with a fivefold increased risk of stroke or death. Analyzing costs is important when introducing new therapies and must be reconsidered in special situations, such as the novel coronavirus pandemic of 2020. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the costs related to anticoagulant therapy in a one-year period, and the quality of life of atrial fibrillation patients treated in a public university hospital. Methods: Patient costs were those related to the anticoagulation and calculated by the average monthly costs of warfarin or direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs). Patient non-medical costs (eg., food and transportation) were calculated from data obtained by questionnaires. The Brazilian SF-6D was used to measure the quality of life. P-values < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results: The study population consisted of 90 patients, 45 in each arm (warfarin vs direct oral anticoagulants). Costs were 20% higher in the DOAC group ($55,532.62 vs $46,385.88), and mainly related to drug price ($23,497.16 vs $1,903.27). Hospital costs were higher in the warfarin group ($31,088.41 vs $24,604.74) and related to outpatient visits. Additionally, non-medical costs were almost twice higher in the warfarin group ($13,394.20 vs $7,430.72). Equivalence of price between the two drugs could be achieved by a 39% reduction in the price of DOACs. There were no significant group differences regarding quality of life. Conclusions: Total costs were higher in the group of patients taking DOACs than those taking warfarin. However, a nearly 40% reduction in the price of DOACs could make it feasible to incorporate these drugs into the Brazilian public health system.

Brazilian-Portuguese Validation Assessment of the Gastrointestinal Quality of Life Index for Patients After Laparoendoscopic Cholecystectomy.

Background: Cholelithiasis is currently one of the most common diagnosis in Brazil. The aim of this study was to validate the Gastrointestinal Quality of Life Index (GIQLI) as a quality-of-life (QoL) assessment among the Brazilian population with syntomatic gallstone. Materials and Methods: The questionnaire was translated and culturally adapted after the linguistic validation process determined by the international methodology. Sixty-three patients who underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy responded to the GIQLI-Brazil and Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36) instruments. For the evaluation of reproducibility, 30 patients responded to GIQLI-Brazil two more times after 2 and 4 weeks. After the University of São Paulo Ethics Commitee Board approval (UNIFESP/CEP: 1270/2019), the study was carryed out between May 2019 and February 2020 at the Gastroenterology outpatient clinic of Hospital São Paulo-Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP). Cronbach's alpha, the calculation of the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), and Spearman's correlation were used to assess the validity and reproducibility of the instrument translated into Portuguese, and to measure correlation between the domains of the GIQLI-Brazil and SF-36 (P < .05). Results: Seven questions were modified during the process of translation and cultural adaptation. The Brazilian version of the instrument presented a Cronbach's alpha of 0.89, and excellent reproducibility through the ICC, with the following variation between domains: meteorism (ICC = 0.918; P < .001) and gastrointestinal function (lower tract) (ICC = 0.956; P < .001). The dimensions of the GIQLI-Brazil and SF-36 demonstrated a significant correlation (P < .001), except between the domains: functional aspects of the SF-36 and gastrointestinal function (lower tract) of the GIQLI-Brazil (r = 0.211). Conclusion: The GIQLI was translated and validated for Portuguese-Brazil and can be used to assess the QoL of adult patients with gastrointestinal diseases and/or disorders.

Willingness of Infertile Couples to Pay for In Vitro Fertilization Treatment in the Integrated Human Reproduction Section of the Escola Paulista de Medicina, São Paulo Federal University.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the willingness to pay (WTP) of infertile couples for in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatment. METHOD: This was a prospective study with an anonymous questionnaire for infertile couples in an academic setting. Clinical characteristics were analyzed by a Student's t test or Mann-Whitney test, categorical variables were compared by a chi-square or Fisher exact test, and correlations were assessed using a Spearman's test. An alpha of 5% was adopted. RESULTS: Mean female and male ages were 31.5 and 35.9 years, respectively; 80.2% were married; 19.8% were in consensual union; 48.1% of women had college degrees; and 49.4% of men had a high school education. Most women (77.8%) and men (75.3%) were white, with a household income of class C. Average duration of union was 8.5 years, and average infertility was 4.7 years. Using a willingness-to-pay (WTP) evaluation and the technique of "direct questioning," the average value was determined to be R$18 720.18 (by payment scale R$22 831.17). WTP positively correlated with household income and each woman's education level. Previous parenthood or use of public health system negatively correlated with WTP. CONCLUSION: We conclude that the higher the couple's monthly income and the woman's educational level, the higher the WTP for an IVF treatment; previous parenthood determined a lower WTP for an IVF treatment, and previous use of the Brazilian Unified Health System, determined a lower WTP for an IVF treatment.

A Comparison of UK and Brazilian SF-6D Preference Weights When Applied to a Brazilian Urban Population.

BACKGROUND: The 6-dimensional health state short form (SF-6D) is a health preference measure used in economic evaluations of many treatments. OBJECTIVES: To compare the results provided by the SF-6D index, when applied to a representative sample of the Brazilian population, using Brazilian and UK preference weights. METHODS: Five thousand individuals were assessed in the 5 regions of Brazil. Preference measures in healthcare were assessed using the SF-6D Brazil, version 2002. To calculate the single utility score, 2 preference weights were used: one established for the Brazilian population (SF-6D Brazil) and the other for the UK population (SF-6D UK). Agreement between the SF-6D Brazil and the SF-6D UK was assessed using the intraclass correlation coefficient, the Wilcoxon signed rank test, confidence intervals (CIs), and the Bland-Altman method. RESULTS: The mean values of the SF-6D Brazil and the SF-6D UK were 0.83 ± 0.15 and 0.84 ± 0.15, respectively. The intraclass correlation coefficient was 0.952 (CI 0.942-0.960; P<.010). The Wilcoxon signed rank test and CI showed a statistically significant difference between the 2 measures; this difference was, however, very small and considered clinically irrelevant (CI 0.011-0.013; P<.010). Using the Bland-Altman method resulted in a mean difference of 0.012 and the limits of agreement were between -0.077 and 0.101. CONCLUSIONS: The present study identified very small quantitative differences between UK- and Brazilian-derived SF-6D scores. Tests of agreement, however, showed that the impact of using different sets of preference weights in the construction of quality-adjusted life-year might be considered irrelevant.

Stakeholder value judgments in decision-making on the incorporation, financing, and allocation of new health technologies in limited-resource settings: a potential Brazilian approach

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To analyze the value judgments behind cost–benefit tradeoffs made by health stakeholders in deciding whether or not to incorporate new health technologies and how they should be financed and allocated in limited-resource settings in Brazil. Method. From June 2009 to January 2010, a sample of stakeholders in the public and private health sector was identified and invited to complete an online survey consisting of two questionnaires: one collecting socio-demographic/professional information and one capturing resource allocation preferences in four hypothetical scenarios for the incorporation of new health technologies. Results. A total of 193 respondents completed the survey; more than half were male (53.9%) and the most common age group was 31–40 years (36.8%). Scenario 1 (incorporation of a new drug treatment for chronic disease, by reducing/eliminating resources for existing programs) was rejected by 49.2% of the survey sample, who preferred to maintain the status quo for existing programs. Scenario 2 (incorporation of the same new treatment, but financed by a new tax) was rejected by 58.0%. Scenario 3 (incorporation of a new treatment for a highly lethal disease, by age group—20–75 years versus 75+ years—by reducing/eliminating resources for existing programs), was rejected by 42.0%, while 20.7% supported allocations for both groups, 34.2% supported allocations exclusively for the 20–75-year age group, and 3.1% supported allocations exclusively for the 75+ year age group. For Scenario 4, which consisted of five different resource allocations for prevention and treatment programs for another highly lethal disease, the most preferred option (chosen by 50.8% of respondents) was 75%:25% (prevention versus treatment). Conclusions. When incorporating a new health technology requires reducing/eliminating other health programs, financing it through a tax, or having to choose certain age groups (e.g., younger, working people versus older people), respondents are likely to reject it. When offered the choice of limiting the scope of the program (e.g., prevention versus treatment), respondents are likely to favor prevention. This was the first study in Brazil to capture value judgments that affect stakeholder decision-making on various resource allocations for different scenarios for health technology introduction in limited-resource settings. Future research should investigate the perspective of society as a whole to determine the best approach for decision-making based on common values and consensus within a particular health care system.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Analizar los juicios de valor que subyacen las concesiones en términos de costo-beneficio que hacen los interesados directos en materia de salud al decidir si se incorporan nuevas tecnologías sanitarias y cómo deben financiarse y asignarse en los entornos con recursos limitados en Brasil. Método. De junio del 2009 a enero del 2010, se estableció una muestra de interesados directos en el sector público y privado de la salud y se los invitó a responder a una encuesta en línea que constaba de dos cuestionarios: uno que recopilaba información sociodemográfica y profesional, y otro que recogía las preferencias respecto a la asignación de recursos en cuatro situaciones hipotéticas para la incorporación de un nuevo tratamiento farmacológico. Resultados. En total, 193 personas respondieron la encuesta; más de la mitad eran hombres (53,9%) y el grupo etario más común fue de 31 a 40 años (36,8%). La situación 1 (incorporación de un nuevo tratamiento farmacológico mediante reducción o eliminación de los recursos para programas existentes) fue rechazada por 49,2% de la muestra de la encuesta, que prefirió que se mantuviera el statu quo para los programas existentes. La situación 2 (incorporación de un tratamiento nuevo, financiada por un nuevo impuesto) fue rechazada por 58,0%. La situación 3 (incorporación de un tratamiento nuevo por grupo etario, a saber, de 20 a 75 años frente a mayores de 75 años) fue rechazada por 42,0%, mientras que 34,2% apoyó la asignación exclusivamente para el grupo de 20 a 75 años y 3,1% apoyó la asignación exclusivamente para el grupo de mayores de 75 años. En cuanto a la situación 4, consistente en cinco asignaciones diferentes de recursos para un nuevo tratamiento farmacológico, la opción más preferida (elegida por 50,8% de los encuestados) fue de 75% a favor de la prevención y 25% a favor del tratamiento. Conclusiones. Cuando la incorporación de una nueva tecnología sanitaria requiere reducir o eliminar otros programas de salud, financiarla mediante un impuesto o tener que elegir a ciertos grupos etarios (por ejemplo, personas más jóvenes que trabajan frente a personas mayores), es probable que los encuestados la rechacen. Cuando se ofrece la opción de limitar el alcance del programa (por ejemplo, prevención frente a tratamiento), es probable que los encuestados favorezcan la prevención. Este fue el primer estudio en Brasil que ha recogido los juicios de valor que influyen en la toma de decisiones por los interesados directos sobre diversas asignaciones de recursos para diferentes situaciones de introducción de tecnologías sanitarias en los entornos con recursos limitados. Las investigaciones futuras deben indagar la perspectiva de la sociedad en su conjunto para determinar el mejor enfoque para la toma de decisiones basada en los valores comunes y el consenso dentro de un sistema de atención de salud particular.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Analisar a apreciação valorativa oculta nos trade-offs de custo-benefício feitas pelos interessados diretos da saúde ao decidirem se serão incorporados novos tratamentos medicamentosos e como eles serão custeados e alocados em cenários com recursos limitados no Brasil. Métodos. De junho de 2009 a janeiro de 2010, uma amostra de interessados diretos do setor público-privado da saúde foi identificada e convidada a responder uma pesquisa online compreendendo dois questionários: o primeiro para coleta de dados sociodemográficos/profissionais e o segundo para conhecer as preferências de alocação de recursos com a incorporação de um novo tratamento medicamentoso em quatro cenários hipotéticos. Resultados. Ao todo, 193 participantes responderam a pesquisa. Mais da metade da amostra era do sexo masculino (53,9%) e pertencia à faixa etária de 31 a 40 anos (36,8%). O cenário 1 (incorporação do novo tratamento medicamentoso com a redução ou a extinção de recursos para programas existentes) foi rejeitado por 49,2% da amostra estudada, que deram preferência a manter a situação corrente dos programas existentes. O cenário 2 (incorporação do novo tratamento custeado por um novo imposto) foi rejeitado por 58,0%. O cenário 3 (incorporação do novo tratamento por faixa etária: 20 a 75 anos ou acima de 75 anos) foi rejeitado por 42,0%, sendo que 34,2% apoiaram a alocação exclusiva para a faixa etária de 20 a 75 anos e 3,1%, para a faixa acima de 75 anos. Quanto ao cenário 4, que compreendia cinco tipos de alocação de recursos para o novo tratamento medicamento, a opção de maior preferência (indicada por 50,8% dos participantes) foi uma razão de 75% a 25% (para prevenção e tratamento, respectivamente). Conclusões. Quando a incorporação de uma nova tecnologia em saúde requeria a redução ou a extinção de outros programas de saúde, o custeio com a arrecadação tributária ou a escolha entre determinadas faixas etárias (por exemplo, população jovem, ativa ou idosa), os participantes tenderam a rejeitá-la. Quando eles tiveram a opção de restringir o alcance do programa (por exemplo, prevenção ou tratamento), verificou-se uma tendência a favor da prevenção. Trata-se do primeiro estudo realizado no Brasil para conhecer a apreciação valorativa que influencia a tomada de decisão dos interessados diretos em alocações variadas de recursos em diferentes situações para a introdução de tecnologia em saúde em cenários com recursos limitados. Outras pesquisas devem ser realizadas para investigar a perspectiva da sociedade como um todo a fim de se determinar a melhor perspectiva para a tomada de decisão fundada nos valores comuns e no consenso em um sistema de atenção de saúde em particular.

Quality of life in a sample of Brazilian adults using the generic SF-12 questionnaire.

OBJECTIVE: This study describes the summary scores of the Short Form-12 (SF-12) questionnaire, according to socio-demographic factors obtained in a probabilistic and representative sample of the Brazilian urban population. METHOD: Five thousand (5,000) individuals, over the age of 15, were assessed in 16 capital cities, in the five regions of the country. The selection of households was random. Face-to-face approach was applied in the household interviews. The SF-12 questionnaire was used to assess quality of life. Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics were also evaluated: gender, age, marital status, skin color, region of the country and use of the public health service. RESULTS: The mean value (SD) of the SF-12 for the entire population was 49.3 (8.7) for the physical component (PCS-12) and 52.7 (9.7) for the mental component (MCS-12). Statistical differences were found for gender (PCS-12 and MCS-12), age (PCS-12) and working status (PCS-12 and MCS-12). Women, elderly, widowed and unemployed individuals, those with lower income and with complaints in the last seven days showed lower mean values (PCS-12 and MCS-12). CONCLUSION: From this point forward, we can provide the basis for comparisons with future research that use the SF-12 for quality of life assessment in Brazil. The Brazilian population has a lower degree of quality of life related do the physical component, and the SF-12 is a useful and discriminative instrument for assessing quality of life in different socio-demographic groups.

Quality of life in a sample of Brazilian adults using the generic SF-12 questionnaire / Qualidade de vida em uma amostra de adultos brasileiros utilizando o questionário genérico SF-12

Summary Objective: This study describes the summary scores of the Short Form-12 (SF-12) questionnaire, according to socio-demographic factors obtained in a probabilistic and representative sample of the Brazilian urban population. Method: Five thousand (5,000) individuals, over the age of 15, were assessed in 16 capital cities, in the five regions of the country. The selection of households was random. Face-to-face approach was applied in the household interviews. The SF-12 questionnaire was used to assess quality of life. Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics were also evaluated: gender, age, marital status, skin color, region of the country and use of the public health service. Results: The mean value (SD) of the SF-12 for the entire population was 49.3 (8.7) for the physical component (PCS-12) and 52.7 (9.7) for the mental component (MCS-12). Statistical differences were found for gender (PCS-12 and MCS-12), age (PCS-12) and working status (PCS-12 and MCS-12). Women, elderly, widowed and unemployed individuals, those with lower income and with complaints in the last seven days showed lower mean values (PCS-12 and MCS-12). Conclusion: From this point forward, we can provide the basis for comparisons with future research that use the SF-12 for quality of life assessment in Brazil. The Brazilian population has a lower degree of quality of life related do the physical component, and the SF-12 is a useful and discriminative instrument for assessing quality of life in different socio-demographic groups.

Resumo Objetivo: Este estudo descreve os escores sumários do questionário Short Form-12 (SF-12), de acordo com os fatores sociodemográficos obtidos em uma amostra probabilística e representativa da população urbana brasileira. Método: Cinco mil (5.000) indivíduos, com idade superior a 15 anos, foram avaliados nas cinco regiões do país, em 16 capitais. A seleção dos domicílios foi aleatória. A coleta de dados foi realizada através de entrevistas domiciliares. O questionário SF-12 foi utilizado para a avaliação de qualidade de vida. Características demográficas e socioeconômicas também foram avaliadas: sexo, idade, estado civil, cor da pele, região do país e uso do serviço público de saúde. Resultados: O valor médio (DP) do SF-12 para a população total foi de 49,3 (8,7) para o componente físico (PCS-12) e 52,7 (9,7) para o componente mental (MCS-12). Foram encontradas diferenças estatísticas para sexo (PCS-12 e MCS-12), idade (PCS-12) e estado laboral (PCS-12 e MCS-12). Mulheres, idosos, viúvos, indivíduos que não estavam trabalhando, pessoas com menor renda e queixas nos últimos sete dias apresentaram valores médios mais baixos (PCS-12 e MCS-12). Conclusão: Os resultados apresentados fornecem bases populacionais para comparações com pesquisas futuras que utilizem o SF-12 para a avaliação da qualidade de vida no Brasil. A população brasileira tem um menor grau de qualidade de vida relacionada ao componente físico, e o SF-12 é um instrumento útil e discriminativo para a avaliação de qualidade de vida em diferentes grupos sociodemográficos.

Stakeholder value judgments in decision-making on the incorporation, financing, and allocation of new health technologies in limited-resource settings: a potential Brazilian approach.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the value judgments behind cost-benefit tradeoffs made by health stakeholders in deciding whether or not to incorporate new health technologies and how they should be financed and allocated in limited-resource settings in Brazil. METHOD: From June 2009 to January 2010, a sample of stakeholders in the public and private health sector was identified and invited to complete an online survey consisting of two questionnaires: one collecting socio-demographic/professional information and one capturing resource allocation preferences in four hypothetical scenarios for the incorporation of new health technologies. RESULTS: A total of 193 respondents completed the survey; more than half were male (53.9%) and the most common age group was 31-40 years (36.8%). Scenario 1 (incorporation of a new drug treatment for chronic disease, by reducing/eliminating resources for existing programs) was rejected by 49.2% of the survey sample, who preferred to maintain the status quo for existing programs. Scenario 2 (incorporation of the same new treatment, but financed by a new tax) was rejected by 58.0%. Scenario 3 (incorporation of a new treatment for a highly lethal disease, by age group-20-75 years versus 75+ years-by reducing/eliminating resources for existing programs), was rejected by 42.0%, while 20.7% supported allocations for both groups, 34.2% supported allocations exclusively for the 20-75-year age group, and 3.1% supported allocations exclusively for the 75+ year age group. For Scenario 4, which consisted of five different resource allocations for prevention and treatment programs for another highly lethal disease, the most preferred option (chosen by 50.8% of respondents) was 75%:25% (prevention versus treatment). CONCLUSIONS: When incorporating a new health technology requires reducing/eliminating other health programs, financing it through a tax, or having to choose certain age groups (e.g., younger, working people versus older people), respondents are likely to reject it. When offered the choice of limiting the scope of the program (e.g., prevention versus treatment), respondents are likely to favor prevention. This was the first study in Brazil to capture value judgments that affect stakeholder decision-making on various resource allocations for different scenarios for health technology introduction in limited-resource settings. Future research should investigate the perspective of society as a whole to determine the best approach for decision-making based on common values and consensus within a particular health care system.

Stakeholder value judgments in decision-making on the incorporation, financing, and allocation of new health technologies in limited-resource settings: a potential Brazilian approach / Juicios de valor de los interesados directos al tomar decisiones sobre la incorporación, el financiamiento y la asignación de nuevas tecnologías sanitarias en los entornos con recursos limitados: un posible enfoque para Brasil / Apreciação valorativa dos interessados diretos na tomada de decisão sobre incorporação, custeio e alocação de novas tecnologias em saúde em cenários com recursos limitados: uma perspectiva em potencial para o Brasil

ABSTRACT Objective. To analyze the value judgments behind cost-benefit tradeoffs made by health stakeholders in deciding whether or not to incorporate new health technologies and how they should be financed and allocated in limited-resource settings in Brazil. Method. From June 2009 to January 2010, a sample of stakeholders in the public and private health sector was identified and invited to complete an online survey consisting of two questionnaires: one collecting socio-demographic/professional information and one capturing resource allocation preferences in four hypothetical scenarios for the incorporation of new health technologies. Results. A total of 193 respondents completed the survey; more than half were male (53.9%) and the most common age group was 31-40 years (36.8%). Scenario 1 (incorporation of a new drug treatment for chronic disease, by reducing/eliminating resources for existing programs) was rejected by 49.2% of the survey sample, who preferred to maintain the status quo for existing programs. Scenario 2 (incorporation of the same new treatment, but financed by a new tax) was rejected by 58.0%. Scenario 3 (incorporation of a new treatment for a highly lethal disease, by age group—20-75 years versus 75+ years—by reducing/eliminating resources for existing programs), was rejected by 42.0%, while 20.7% supported allocations for both groups, 34.2% supported allocations exclusively for the 20-75-year age group, and 3.1% supported allocations exclusively for the 75+ year age group. For Scenario 4, which consisted of five different resource allocations for prevention and treatment programs for another highly lethal disease, the most preferred option (chosen by 50.8% of respondents) was 75%:25% (prevention versus treatment). Conclusions. When incorporating a new health technology requires reducing/eliminating other health programs, financing it through a tax, or having to choose certain age groups (e.g., younger, working people versus older people), respondents are likely to reject it. When offered the choice of limiting the scope of the program (e.g., prevention versus treatment), respondents are likely to favor prevention. This was the first study in Brazil to capture value judgments that affect stakeholder decision-making on various resource allocations for different scenarios for health technology introduction in limited-resource settings. Future research should investigate the perspective of society as a whole to determine the best approach for decision-making based on common values and consensus within a particular health care system.

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RESUMO Objetivo. Analisar a apreciação valorativa oculta nos trade-offs de custo-benefício feitas pelos interessados diretos da saúde ao decidirem se serão incorporados novos tratamentos medicamentosos e como eles serão custeados e alocados em cenários com recursos limitados no Brasil. Métodos. De junho de 2009 a janeiro de 2010, uma amostra de interessados diretos do setor público-privado da saúde foi identificada e convidada a responder uma pesquisa online compreendendo dois questionários: o primeiro para coleta de dados sociodemográficos/profissionais e o segundo para conhecer as preferências de alocação de recursos com a incorporação de um novo tratamento medicamentoso em quatro cenários hipotéticos. Resultados. Ao todo, 193 participantes responderam a pesquisa. Mais da metade da amostra era do sexo masculino (53,9%) e pertencia à faixa etária de 31 a 40 anos (36,8%). O cenário 1 (incorporação do novo tratamento medicamentoso com a redução ou a extinção de recursos para programas existentes) foi rejeitado por 49,2% da amostra estudada, que deram preferência a manter a situação corrente dos programas existentes. O cenário 2 (incorporação do novo tratamento custeado por um novo imposto) foi rejeitado por 58,0%. O cenário 3 (incorporação do novo tratamento por faixa etária: 20 a 75 anos ou acima de 75 anos) foi rejeitado por 42,0%, sendo que 34,2% apoiaram a alocação exclusiva para a faixa etária de 20 a 75 anos e 3,1%, para a faixa acima de 75 anos. Quanto ao cenário 4, que compreendia cinco tipos de alocação de recursos para o novo tratamento medicamento, a opção de maior preferência (indicada por 50,8% dos participantes) foi uma razão de 75% a 25% (para prevenção e tratamento, respectivamente). Conclusões. Quando a incorporação de uma nova tecnologia em saúde requeria a redução ou a extinção de outros programas de saúde, o custeio com a arrecadação tributária ou a escolha entre determinadas faixas etárias (por exemplo, população jovem, ativa ou idosa), os participantes tenderam a rejeitá-la. Quando eles tiveram a opção de restringir o alcance do programa (por exemplo, prevenção ou tratamento), verificou-se uma tendência a favor da prevenção. Trata-se do primeiro estudo realizado no Brasil para conhecer a apreciação valorativa que influencia a tomada de decisão dos interessados diretos em alocações variadas de recursos em diferentes situações para a introdução de tecnologia em saúde em cenários com recursos limitados. Outras pesquisas devem ser realizadas para investigar a perspectiva da sociedade como um todo a fim de se determinar a melhor perspectiva para a tomada de decisão fundada nos valores comuns e no consenso em um sistema de atenção de saúde em particular.

Health technology assessment: the process in Brazil.

OBJECTIVES: To describe, analyze, and compare the opinions of decisionmakers involved in the health technology assessment (HTA) process in Brazil in 2011. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted using a structured questionnaire to evaluate the opinions of a convenience sample of health care professionals from both the public and private health care systems (HCS). The survey collected demographic data for each respondent along with their input on national regulations. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, including chi-square tests to compare groups. RESULTS: Of the 200 completed questionnaires, 65% of the respondents were 31-50 years of age; 36% were HCS managers, 49.3% from the public and 50.7% from the private system. The majority of respondents (85%) considered the time permitted for submission of new technology to be inadequate; 88% also stated that the composition of the evaluation committee needed improvement. Respondents from the private health system more frequently stated that submission times were inappropriate (P = 0.019) and that the deadline for a decision by the committee should be defined (P = 0.021), with a maximum of no more than 180 days / 6 months (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Respondents indicated that the HTA process should be improved to meet their expectations. Given that new legislation has been enacted to continuously accept submissions, to make decisions within 180 days, and to expand the committee to represent more stakeholders, most of the respondents concerns have been addressed. This study is valuable as an historical analysis of HTA process improvement. Further surveys are needed to track the new HTA process, its application, and its contribution to health care needs in Brazil.

Willingness to Pay in Caregivers of Patients Affected by Schizophrenia.

BACKGROUND: Schizophrenia is a debilitating disorder that often requires the affected individual to receive care from a caregiver. Willingness to Pay (WTP) technique allows a valuation of the health state preferences by assessing the impact of the disease and translating it into monetary terms. AIMS OF THE STUDY: The objective was to determine the WTP of schizophrenic patients' caregivers on a hypothetical recovery scenario and correlate it to socio-demographic and clinical characteristics, Knowledge of Disease, Quality of life and Burden of Disease. METHODS: A convenience sample consecutively assessed 189 outpatients' caregivers from Schizophrenia Program of Federal University of Sao Paulo. A single caregiver was considered for each patient, taking into consideration their close relationship and their direct involvement in the treatment. Open WTP questionnaire for a hypothetical schizophrenia recovery scenario, KAST (Knowledge of Disease), SF-6D (Quality of life) and ZBI-22 (Burden of Disease) scales were applied. RESULTS: A monthly WTP mean value (SD) of US\USD 63.63 (111.88) was found. The average value (SD) found was 12.96 (2.45) on KAST, 0.78 (0.08) on SF6D and 29.91 (16.10) on ZARIT. Income, education, social class, knowledge of disease and burden of caregiver were positively correlated to the WTP value. By linear regression model, income and education remained significant. CONCLUSION: Willingness to Pay (WTP) is a method that can be used to determine the strength of preference of patients and caregivers for a recovery in schizophrenia. The higher the income and education, the higher the willingness to pay. No clinical characteristics of patients had a statistically significant relation to the value the caregiver would pay. IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH POLICIES: WTP is a potentially useful tool to determine values and health care preferences, and can be used for the development of mental health policies. IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: Future research should be used to enhance WTP tool in mental health studies on the impact of diseases, including schizophrenia.

Health technology assessment: the process in Brazil / Avaliação de Tecnologias em Saúde: o processo no Brasil

Objectives. To describe, analyze, and compare the opinions of decisionmakers involved in the health technology assessment (HTA) process in Brazil in 2011. Methods. A cross-sectional study was conducted using a structured questionnaire to evaluate the opinions of a convenience sample of health care professionals from both the public and private health care systems (HCS). The survey collected demographic data for each respondent along with their input on national regulations. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, including chi-square tests to compare groups. Results. Of the 200 completed questionnaires, 65% of the respondents were 31–50 years of age; 36% were HCS managers, 49.3% from the public and 50.7% from the private system. The majority of respondents (85%) considered the time permitted for submission of new technology to be inadequate; 88% also stated that the composition of the evaluation committee needed improvement. Respondents from the private health system more frequently stated that submission times were inappropriate (P = 0.019) and that the deadline for a decision by the committee should be defined (P = 0.021), with a maximum of no more than 180 days / 6 months (P < 0.001). Conclusions. Respondents indicated that the HTA process should be improved to meet their expectations. Given that new legislation has been enacted to continuously accept submissions, to make decisions within 180 days, and to expand the committee to represent more stakeholders, most of the respondents concerns have been addressed. This study is valuable as an historical analysis of HTA process improvement. Further surveys are needed to track the new HTA process, its application, and its contribution to health care needs in Brazil.

Objetivos: Descrever, analisar e comparar as opiniões dos tomadores de decisão envolvidos com o processo de Avaliação de Tecnologias em Saúde (ATS) em vigor no Brasil, em 2011. Métodos. Estudo transversal conduzido através de questionário estruturado para avaliar as opniões de uma amostra de conveniência composta de profissionais de saúde dos sistemas de saúde público e privado. Foram coletados dados demográficos de todos os respondentes junto com suas opiniões sobre as regulamentações nacionais. Resultados. Dos 200 questionários completados, 65% dos respondentes tinham entre 31-50 anos de idade; 36% eram gestores do sistema de saúde: 49.3% do sistema público e 50.7% do privado. A maioria dos respondentes (85%) considerou que o tempo permitido para a submissão de novas tecnologias era inadequado; 88% informou que a composição do comitê de avaliação necessitava melhorias. Respondentes do sistema privado de saúde responderam, com mais frequência, que os tempos de submissão eram inadequados (P=0.019) e que o prazo para a decisão pelo comitê deveria ser definido (P=0.021), com um prazo não superior a 180 dias/ 6 meses (P<0.001). Conclusões: Respondentes indicaram que o processo de ATS deveria ser melhorado para alcançar suas expectativas. O fato de que uma nova legislação em ATS foi aprovada onde se aceitam submissões de forma contínua, tomada de decisões em até 180 dias, e agregam representantes da sociedade ao comitê de avaliação, demonstra que grande parte das preocupações dos respondentes foi respondida. Este estudo tem seu valor como uma análise histórica da melhoria do processo de ATS no país. Pesquisas adicionais são necessárias para acompanhar o novo processo de ATS, sua aplicação e contribuição às necessidades do sistema de saúde no Brasil.

Health technology assessment: the process in Brazil / Evaluación de las tecnologías sanitarias: el proceso vigente en el Brasil / Avaliação de Tecnologias em Saúde: o processo no Brasil

ABSTRACT Objectives To describe, analyze, and compare the opinions of decisionmakers involved in the health technology assessment (HTA) process in Brazil in 2011. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted using a structured questionnaire to evaluate the opinions of a convenience sample of health care professionals from both the public and private health care systems (HCS). The survey collected demographic data for each respondent along with their input on national regulations. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, including chi-square tests to compare groups. Results Of the 200 completed questionnaires, 65% of the respondents were 31–50 years of age; 36% were HCS managers, 49.3% from the public and 50.7% from the private system. The majority of respondents (85%) considered the time permitted for submission of new technology to be inadequate; 88% also stated that the composition of the evaluation committee needed improvement. Respondents from the private health system more frequently stated that submission times were inappropriate (P = 0.019) and that the deadline for a decision by the committee should be defined (P = 0.021), with a maximum of no more than 180 days / 6 months (P < 0.001). Conclusions Respondents indicated that the HTA process should be improved to meet their expectations. Given that new legislation has been enacted to continuously accept submissions, to make decisions within 180 days, and to expand the committee to represent more stakeholders, most of the respondents concerns have been addressed. This study is valuable as an historical analysis of HTA process improvement. Further surveys are needed to track the new HTA process, its application, and its contribution to health care needs in Brazil.

RESUMEN Objetivos Describir, analizar y comparar las opiniones de los encargados de adoptar las decisiones en el proceso de evaluación de las tecnologías sanitarias llevado adelante en el Brasil durante el 2011. Métodos Se realizó un estudio transversal en el que se administró un cuestionario estructurado para evaluar las opiniones de una muestra de conveniencia de profesionales de la salud tanto del sistema público como del privado. La encuesta recopiló los datos demográficos de cada encuestado junto con su opinión respecto de los reglamentos nacionales. El análisis de los datos incluyó estadísticas descriptivas, como la prueba de la ji al cuadrado para comparar los datos de los distintos grupos. Resultados De los 200 encuestados que respondieron el cuestionario, el 65 % tenía 31–50 años; el 36 % ocupaba algún cargo gerencial en el sistema de salud, el 49,3 % pertenecía al público y el 50,7 % trabajaba en el sistema privado. La mayoría de los encuestados (85 %) consideraron insuficiente el tiempo permitido para presentar las nuevas tecnologías; el 88 % también declaró que debía mejorar la composición del comité de evaluación. Los encuestados del sistema de salud privado declararon con más frecuencia que los tiempos de presentación habían sido inadecuados (P = 0,019) y que era necesario definir un lapso máximo para que el comité tomara su decisión (P = 0,021), el que no debía exceder los 180 días o 6 meses (P < 0,001). Conclusiones Los encuestados indicaron que es preciso mejorar el proceso de evaluación de las tecnologías sanitarias a fin de satisfacer sus expectativas. En vista de que se han aprobado nuevas leyes que habilitan la presentación continua de nuevas tecnologías, que imponen la toma de decisiones al cabo de 180 días y que amplían el comité para que estén representados más interesados directos, se ha abordado la mayoría de las inquietudes manifestadas por los encuestados. Este estudio es valioso como análisis histórico del mejoramiento de los procesos de evaluación de las nuevas tecnologías. Es preciso emprender más encuestas para llevar a cabo un seguimiento del nuevo proceso, su aplicación y su contribución a las necesidades de atención de salud en el Brasil.

RESUMO Objetivos Descrever, analisar e comparar as opiniões dos tomadores de decisão envolvidos com o processo de Avaliação de Tecnologias em Saúde (ATS) em vigor no Brasil, em 2011. Métodos Estudo transversal conduzido através de questionário estruturado para avaliar as opniões de uma amostra de conveniência composta de profissionais de saúde dos sistemas de saúde público e privado. Foram coletados dados demográficos de todos os respondentes junto com suas opiniões sobre as regulamentações nacionais. Resultados Dos 200 questionários completados, 65% dos respondentes tinham entre 31-50 anos de idade; 36% eram gestores do sistema de saúde: 49.3% do sistema público e 50.7% do privado. A maioria dos respondentes (85%) considerou que o tempo permitido para a submissão de novas tecnologias era inadequado; 88% informou que a composição do comitê de avaliação necessitava melhorias. Respondentes do sistema privado de saúde responderam, com mais frequência, que os tempos de submissão eram inadequados (P=0.019) e que o prazo para a decisão pelo comitê deveria ser definido (P=0.021), com um prazo não superior a 180 dias/ 6 meses (P<0.001). Conclusões Respondentes indicaram que o processo de ATS deveria ser melhorado para alcançar suas expectativas. O fato de que uma nova legislação em ATS foi aprovada onde se aceitam submissões de forma contínua, tomada de decisões em até 180 dias, e agregam representantes da sociedade ao comitê de avaliação, demonstra que grande parte das preocupações dos respondentes foi respondida. Este estudo tem seu valor como uma análise histórica da melhoria do processo de ATS no país. Pesquisas adicionais são necessárias para acompanhar o novo processo de ATS, sua aplicação e contribuição às necessidades do sistema de saúde no Brasil.

Perception of the value of generic drugs in São Paulo, Brazil.

The objective of this study was to assess the perceptions of opinion-leaders, patients and their accompanying family members or carers about generic drugs. Three groups of participants were surveyed: (i) 50 customers while they were visiting commercial pharmacies located in São Paulo city, Brazil, (ii) 25 patients and 25 companions while they were waiting at the university outpatient clinic, and (iii) 50 healthcare opinion-leaders from government, hospitals, health plans, academia, and pharmaceutical companies. The questions explored socio-demographic characteristics and perceptions regarding value attributes of generic drugs compared to brand name drugs. Respondents had an average age of 52 years and 53% were women. Respondents believed generic drugs to be cheaper than brand name drugs (97%), and 31% thought generic drugs to be less effective than brand name drugs. Also, generic drugs were perceived by 54% of respondents to be as safe as brand name drugs and 74% would prefer brand name drugs if there was no price difference. In conclusion, multiple factors may contribute to the decision to buy generic drugs; among these, perceived effectiveness, safety and price appear to be the most important factors.

Prevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms in the five urban regions of Brazil-the Brazilian COPCORD study (BRAZCO).

The objective of this study is to describe the prevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms (MSK-S) in the five urban geographical regions of Brazil using the Portuguese version of the Community Oriented Program for Control of Rheumatic Diseases (COPCORD) core questionnaire (CQ)-BRAZCO study. From April to May 2013, a population-based survey was conducted by applying the CQ for 5000 individuals aged over 15 years in 16 capitals of the Brazilian regions. Trained teams assessed the MSK-S and socioeconomic status. The sample consisted of representative quotas of the Brazilian population, proportional to the capitals' population density. It respected the groups' quotas of gender and age and included all socioeconomic classes, educational levels, and occupations. There were 1342 (26.9 %) participants who presented MSK-S unrelated to trauma in 7 days preceding the interview. A higher prevalence of these complaints were in females (65.2 %), elderly people, in the north region of the country (30.7 %), and a lower prevalence was found in single individuals (41.7 %) and in the south (23.3 %). The most frequent pain sites were the spine (76.7 %) and knees (49.6 %), and the mean pain intensity was 6.8 (VAS). The BRAZCO study shows that Brazilian population presents a higher rate of MSK-S unrelated to trauma than many Asian countries. These results can be applied to guide the assessment of prevalence of rheumatic diseases. Additionally, it can help in the design of policies for health care workforce organization and its accessibility, as well as to reduce the risk of rheumatic diseases at the community level.

Perception of the value of generic drugs in São Paulo, Brazil / Percepção de valor de medicamentos genéricos em São Paulo, Brasil / Percepción del valor de las medicinas genéricas en São Paulo, Brasil

Abstract The objective of this study was to assess the perceptions of opinion-leaders, patients and their accompanying family members or carers about generic drugs. Three groups of participants were surveyed: (i) 50 customers while they were visiting commercial pharmacies located in São Paulo city, Brazil, (ii) 25 patients and 25 companions while they were waiting at the university outpatient clinic, and (iii) 50 healthcare opinion-leaders from government, hospitals, health plans, academia, and pharmaceutical companies. The questions explored socio-demographic characteristics and perceptions regarding value attributes of generic drugs compared to brand name drugs. Respondents had an average age of 52 years and 53% were women. Respondents believed generic drugs to be cheaper than brand name drugs (97%), and 31% thought generic drugs to be less effective than brand name drugs. Also, generic drugs were perceived by 54% of respondents to be as safe as brand name drugs and 74% would prefer brand name drugs if there was no price difference. In conclusion, multiple factors may contribute to the decision to buy generic drugs; among these, perceived effectiveness, safety and price appear to be the most important factors.

Resumo Avaliar as percepções de formadores de opinião, pacientes e acompanhantes em relação aos medicamentos genéricos. Foram entrevistados três grupos de participantes: (i) 50 clientes durante visitas em drogarias localizadas na cidade de São Paulo, Brasil; (ii) 25 pacientes e 25 acompanhantes durante a espera em ambulatórios clínicos; e (iii) 50 formadores de opinião do governo, hospitais, planos de saúde, academia e empresas farmacêuticas. As questões exploraram características sociodemográficas e as percepções em relação aos atributos de valores dos medicamentos genéricos comparados aos medicamentos de referência. Os respondentes tinham em média 52 anos e 53% eram mulheres. Os participantes acreditavam que os medicamentos genéricos eram mais baratos que os medicamentos de referência (97%) e 31% tinham a percepção que os medicamentos genéricos são menos efetivos. Além disso, 54% acreditavam que os medicamentos genéricos eram tão seguros quanto os medicamentos de referência e, sem uma diferença de preço, 74% preferiam os medicamentos de referências. Em conclusão, múltiplos fatores podem contribuir para a decisão de compra de um medicamentos genéricos; dentre estes, a efetividade, a segurança e o preço aparecem como os fatores mais importantes.

Resume Evaluar las percepciones de los formadores de opinión, pacientes y acompañantes, en relación con las medicinas genéricas. Fueron entrevistados tres grupos: (i) 50 clientes durante visitas a farmacias ubicadas en la ciudad de São Paulo, Brasil; (ii) 25 pacientes y 25 acompañantes durante la espera en ambulatorios clínicos; y (iii) 50 formadores de opinión del gobierno, hospitales, seguros de salud, académicos y empresas farmacéuticas. Las preguntas investigaron características sociodemográficas y las percepciones en relación con los atributos de valores de las medicinas genéricas, comparados con las medicinas de referencia. Los participantes tenían en promedio 52 años y 53% eran mujeres. Los involucrados pensaban que los medicinas genéricas eran más baratos (97%) y 31% tenía la percepción que las medicinas genéricas son menos efectivos. Además, 54% creía que las medicinas genéricas eran tan seguros como las medicinas de referencia y, sin diferencia de precio, 74% preferirían las medicinas de referencia. En conclusión, múltiples factores contribuyen en la decisión de compra de un medicinas genéricas; dentro de los cuales, la efectividad, la seguridad y el precio aparecen como los más importantes.

Evaluation of functional capacity in individuals with signs and symptoms of musculoskeletal disease: results of the BRAZCO population study (Brazilian COPCORD Study).

The disability caused by the musculoskeletal signs and symptoms affects the quality of life of a population, especially that related to health. The objective of this study is to evaluate the functional capacity of individuals of the Brazilian population who presented musculoskeletal signs and symptoms (MSK-S). The prevalence of MSK-S was evaluated in 5000 individuals (>15 years) in 16 capitals from the five regions of Brazil using the COPCORD Core Questionnaire. Those individuals (n = 2494) that experienced MSK-S and referred some level of disability at the time of the interview were invited to complete the Health Assessment Questionnaire-Disability Index (HAQ-DI). The HAQ-DI scores were compared among regions, and subgroups according to gender, age and type of activity. Three hundred ninety-four (7.9 %) participants reported disability at the time of the interview. The average score of HAQ-DI was 1.09 (SD = 0.71), and the Brazilian region with the highest level of disability was the North region. Among individuals without history of trauma, the disability was higher when the duration of MSK-S was longer. Disability was shown to worsen with increasing age, and the group with 25-34 years showed the lowest scores. Females showed worse functional capacity scores compared to males (p = 0.002). Individuals showed higher degrees of difficulty or were incapable of performing the activities walking, reaching, usual activities and dressing. MSK-S reduce the functional capacity of individuals of the Brazilian general population. The reduction in functional capacity was mainly observed in individuals with chronic musculoskeletal complaints not due to trauma, as well as in female gender and in advancing age.

Health care: the challenge to deal with uncertainty and value judgment.

The exponential increase of knowledge in the life sciences field, more specifically in health sciences, in the past few years has brought additional levels of complexity when deciding and implementing strategies in the health care system. A predominantly paternalistic way to decide about available options to maintain or improve individual or collective health has been moving to a shared-decision model considering the empowered patient. In spite of the reduction of uncertainty when making health and health care decisions due to the advancement in scientific methods, and, in spite of the asymmetry of information, knowledge and power to make decisions, we are progressively recognizing the importance of individuals, the target of the intervention, to express their preferences and to take an active role in the decision making process. Health care stakeholders, recognizing the scarcity of resources available and the fortunate ever increasing amount of applicable knowledge and its corresponding interventions to improve the population quantity and quality of life, should stimulate society to address and discuss health care issues that will guide critical choices and define health care priorities based mostly on judgment and the best evidence available.